International Physics Olympiad

IPhO 2025

Paris, France · 3 theory problems with complete solutions

  1. Problem 1: Hydrogen and galaxies

    This problem aims to study the peculiar physics of galaxies, such as their dynamics and structure. In particular, we explain how to measure the mass distribution of our galaxy from the inside. For this we will focus on hydrogen, its main constituent.

    Throughout this problem we will only use \(\hbar\), defined as \(\hbar=h/2\pi\).

    Part A - Introduction

    Bohr model

    We assume that the hydrogen atom consists of a non-relativistic electron, with mass \(m_e\), orbiting a fixed proton. Throughout this part, we assume its motion is on a circular orbit.

    A.1 — 0.2pt

    Determine the electron's velocity \(v\) in a circular orbit of radius \(r\).

    In the Bohr model, we assume the magnitude of the electron's angular momentum \(L\) is quantized, \(L=n\hbar\) where \(n>0\) is an integer. We define \(\alpha=\dfrac{e^2}{4\pi\varepsilon_0\hbar c}\approx7.27\times10^{-3}\).

    A.2 — 0.5pt

    Show that the radius of each orbit is given by \(r_n=n^2r_1\), where \(r_1\) is called the Bohr radius. Express \(r_1\) in terms of \(\alpha\), \(m_e\), \(c\) and \(\hbar\) and calculate its numerical value with 3 digits. Express \(v_1\), the velocity on the orbit of radius \(r_1\), in terms of \(\alpha\) and \(c\).

    A.3 — 0.5pt

    Determine the electron's mechanical energy \(E_n\) on an orbit of radius \(r_n\) in terms of \(e\), \(\varepsilon_0\), \(r_1\) and \(n\). Determine \(E_1\) in the ground state in terms of \(\alpha\), \(m_e\) and \(c\). Compute its numerical value in eV.

    Hydrogen fine and hyperfine structures

    The rare spontaneous inversion of the electron's spin causes a photon to be emitted on average once per 10 million years per hydrogen atom. This emission serves as a hydrogen tracer in the universe and is thus fundamental in astrophysics. We will study the transition responsible for this emission in two steps.

    First, consider the interaction between the electron spin and the relative motion of the electron and the proton. Working in the electron's frame of reference, the proton orbits the electron at a distance \(r_1\). This produces a magnetic field \(\vec B_1\).

    A.4 — 0.5pt

    Determine the magnitude \(B_1\) of \(\vec B_1\) at the position of the electron in terms of \(\mu_0\), \(e\), \(\alpha\), \(c\) and \(r_1\).

    Second, the electron spin creates a magnetic moment \(\vec{\mathcal M}_s\). Its magnitude is roughly \(\mathcal M_s=\dfrac{e}{m_e}\hbar\). The fine (F) structure is related to the energy difference \(\Delta E_{\mathrm F}\) between an electron with a magnetic moment \(\vec{\mathcal M}_s\) parallel to \(\vec B_1\) and that of an electron with \(\vec{\mathcal M}_s\) anti-parallel to \(\vec B_1\). Similarly, the hyperfine (HF) structure is related to the energy difference \(\Delta E_{\mathrm{HF}}\), due to the interaction between parallel and anti-parallel magnetic moments of the electron and the proton. It is known to be approximately \(\Delta E_{\mathrm{HF}}\simeq3.72\dfrac{m_e}{m_p}\Delta E_{\mathrm F}\) where \(m_p\) is the proton mass.

    A.5 — 0.5pt

    Express \(\Delta E_{\mathrm F}\) as a function of \(\alpha\) and \(E_1\).

    Express the wavelength \(\lambda_{\mathrm{HF}}\) of a photon emitted during a transition between the two states of the hyperfine structure and give its numerical value with two digits.

    Part B - Rotation curves of galaxies

    Data

    • Kiloparsec: \(1\,\mathrm{kpc}=3.09\times10^{19}\,\mathrm m\)
    • Solar mass : \(1\,M_\odot=1.99\times10^{30}\,\mathrm{kg}\)

    We consider a spherical galaxy centered around a fixed point \(O\). At any point \(P\), let \(\rho=\rho(P)\) be the volumetric mass density and \(\varphi=\varphi(P)\) the associated gravitational potential (i.e. potential energy per unit mass). Both \(\rho\) and \(\varphi\) depend only on \(r=\|\overrightarrow{OP}\|\). The motion of a mass \(m\) located at \(P\), due to the field \(\varphi\), is restricted to a plane containing \(O\).

    B.1 — 0.2pt

    In the case of a circular orbit, determine the velocity \(v_c\) of an object on a circular orbit passing through \(P\) in terms of \(r\) and \(\dfrac{d\varphi}{dr}\).

    Fig. 1(A) is a picture of the spiral galaxy NGC 6946 in the visible band (from the 0.8m Schulman Telescope at the Mount Lemmon Sky Center in Arizona). The little ellipses in Fig. 1(B) show experimental measurements of \(v_c\) for this galaxy. The central region (\(r<1\,\mathrm{kpc}\)) is named the bulge. In this region, the mass distribution is roughly homogeneous. The red curve is a prediction for \(v_c\) if the system were homogeneous in the bulge and keplerian (\(\varphi(r)=-\beta/r\) with \(\beta>0\)) outside it, i.e. considering that the total mass of the galaxy is concentrated in the bulge.

    Figure 1

    Fig. 1: NGC 6946 galaxy: Picture (A) and rotation curve (B).

    B.2 — 0.5pt

    Deduce the mass \(M_b\) of the bulge of NGC 6946 from the red rotation curve in Fig. 1(B), in solar mass units.

    Comparing the keplerian model and the experimental data makes astronomers confident that part of the mass is invisible in the picture. They thus suppose that the galaxy's actual mass density is given by

    \[ \rho_m(r)=\frac{C_m}{r_m^2+r^2} \tag{1} \]

    where \(C_m>0\) and \(r_m>0\) are constants.

    B.3 — 1.8pt

    Show that the velocity profile \(v_{c,m}(r)\), corresponding to the mass density in Eq. 1, can be written \[ v_{c,m}(r)=\sqrt{k_1-\frac{k_2\cdot\arctan\!\left(\frac r{r_m}\right)}r}. \] Express \(k_1\) and \(k_2\) in terms of \(C_m\), \(r_m\) and \(G\).

    (Hints: \(\displaystyle\int_0^r\frac{x^2}{a^2+x^2}\,dx=r-a\arctan(r/a)\), and: \(\arctan(x)\simeq x-x^3/3\) for \(x\ll1\).)

    Simplify \(v_{c,m}(r)\) when \(r\ll r_m\) and when \(r\gg r_m\).

    Show that if \(r\gg r_m\), the mass \(M_m(r)\) embedded in a sphere of radius \(r\) with the mass density given by Eq. 1 simplifies and depends only on \(C_m\) and \(r\).

    Estimate the mass of the galaxy NGC 6946 actually present in the picture in Fig. 1(A).

    Part C - Mass distribution in our galaxy

    For a spiral galaxy, the model for Eq. 1 is modified and one usually considers the gravitational potential is given by \[ \varphi_G(r,z)=\varphi_0\ln\!\left(\frac r{r_0}\right) \exp\!\left[-\left(\frac z{z_0}\right)^2\right], \] where \(z\) is the distance to the galactic plane (defined by \(z=0\)), and \(r<r_0\) is now the axial radius and \(\varphi_0>0\) a constant to be determined. \(r_0\) and \(z_0\) are constant values.

    C.1 — 0.5pt

    Find the equation of motion on \(z\) for the vertical motion of a point mass \(m\) in such a potential, assuming \(r\) is constant. Show that, if \(r<r_0\) the galactic plane is a stable equilibrium state by giving the angular frequency \(\omega_0\) of small oscillations around it.

    From here on, we set \(z=0\).

    C.2 — 0.6pt

    Identify the regime, either \(r\gg r_m\) or \(r\ll r_m\), in which the model of Eq. 1 recovers a potential of the form \(\varphi_G(r,0)\) with a suitable definition of \(\varphi_0\).

    Under this condition \(v_c(r)\) no longer depends on \(r\). Express it in terms of \(\varphi_0\).

    Therefore, outside the bulge the velocity modulus \(v_c\) does not depend on the distance to the galactic center. We will use this fact, as astronomers do, to measure the galaxy's mass distribution from the inside.

    All galactic objects considered here for astronomical observations, such as stars or nebulae, are primarily composed of hydrogen. Outside the bulge, we assume that they rotate on circular orbits around the galactic center \(C\). \(S\) is the sun's position and \(E\) that of a given galactic object emitting in the hydrogen spectrum. In the galactic plane, we consider a line of sight \(SE\) corresponding to the orientation of an observation, on the unit vector \(\hat u_v\) (see Fig. 2).

    Figure 2

    Fig. 2: Geometry of the measurement

    Let \(\ell\) be the galactic longitude, measuring the angle between \(SC\) and the \(SE\). The sun's velocity on its circular orbit of radius \(R_\odot=8.00\,\mathrm{kpc}\) is denoted \(\vec v_\odot\). A galactic object in \(E\) orbits on another circle of radius \(R\) at velocity \(\vec v_E\). Using a Doppler effect on the previously studied 21cm line, one can obtain the relative radial velocity \(v_{rE/S}\) of the emitter \(E\) with respect to the sun \(S\): it is the projection of \(\vec v_E-\vec v_\odot\) on the line of sight.

    C.3 — 0.7pt

    Determine \(v_{rE/S}\) in terms of \(\ell\), \(R\), \(R_\odot\) and \(v_\odot\). Then, express \(R\) in terms of \(R_\odot\), \(v_\odot\), \(\ell\) and \(v_{rE/S}\).

    Using a radio telescope, we make observations in the plane of our galaxy toward a longitude \(\ell=30^\circ\). The frequency band used contains the 21cm line, whose frequency is \(f_0=1.42\,\mathrm{GHz}\). The results are reported in Fig. 3.

    Figure 3

    Fig. 3: Electromagnetic signal as a function of the frequency shift, measured in the radio frequency band at \(\ell=30^\circ\) using EU-HOU RadioAstronomy

    C.4 — 0.6pt

    In our galaxy, \(v_\odot=220\,\mathrm{km\cdot s^{-1}}\). Determine the values of the relative radial velocity (with 3 significant digits) and the distance from the galactic center (with 2 significant digits) of the 3 sources observed in Fig. 3. Distances should be expressed as multiples of \(R_\odot\).

    C.5 — 0.6pt

    On the top view of our galaxy (in the answer box), indicate the positions of the sources observed in Fig. 3.

    What could be deduced from repeated measurements changing \(\ell\)?

    Figure 4

    Part D - Tully-Fisher relation and MOND theory

    The flat external velocity curve of NGC 6946 in Fig. 1 is a common property of spiral galaxies, as can be seen in Fig. 4 (left). Plotting the external constant velocity value \(v_{c,\infty}\) as a function of the measured total mass \(M_{\mathrm{tot}}\) of each galaxy gives an interesting correlation called the Tully-Fischer relation, see Fig. 4 (right).

    Figure 5

    Fig. 4. Left: Rotation curves for typical spiral galaxies - Right: \(\log_{10}(M_{\mathrm{tot}})\) as a function of \(\log_{10}(v_{c,\infty})\) on linear scales. Colored dots correspond to different galaxies and different surveys. The green line is the Tully-Fischer relation which is in very good agreement with the best fit line of the data (in black).

    D.1 — 0.4pt

    Assuming that the radius \(R\) of a galaxy doesn't depend on its mass, show that the model of Eq. 1 (part B) gives a relation of the form \(M_{\mathrm{tot}}=\eta v_{c,\infty}^{\gamma}\) where \(\gamma\) and \(\eta\) should be specified.

    Compare this expression to the Tully-Fischer relation by computing \(\gamma_{TF}\).

    In the extremely low acceleration regime, of the order of \(a_0=10^{-10}\,\mathrm{m\cdot s^{-2}}\), the MOdified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) theory suggests that one can modify Newton's second law using \[ \vec F=m\mu\!\left(\frac a{a_0}\right)\vec a \] where \(a=\|\vec a\|\) is the modulus of the acceleration and the \(\mu\) function is defined by \(\mu(x)=\dfrac{x}{1+x}\).

    D.2 — 0.2pt

    Using data for NGC 6946 in Fig. 1, estimate, within Newton's theory, the modulus of the acceleration \(a_m\) of a mass in the outer regions of NGC 6946.

    D.3 — 0.8pt

    Let \(m\) be a mass on a circular orbit of radius \(r\) with velocity \(v_{c,\infty}\) in the gravity field of a fixed mass \(M\).

    Within the MOND theory, with \(a\ll a_0\), determine the Tully-Fischer exponent.

    Using data for NGC 6946 and/or Tully-Fischer law, calculate \(a_0\) to show that MOND operates in the correct regime.

    D.4 — 0.9pt

    Considering relevant cases, determine \(v_c(r)\) for all values of \(r\) in the MOND theory in the case of a gravitational field due to a homogeneously distributed mass \(M\) with radius \(R_b\).

    General Data Sheet

    Constant Notation Value Unit
    Speed of light in vacuum \(c\) \(2.997\,924\,58\times10^8\) \(\mathrm{m\cdot s^{-1}}\)
    Planck constant \(h\) \(6.626\,070\,15\times10^{-34}\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot m^2\cdot s^{-1}}\)
    Reduced Planck constant \(\hbar=\dfrac h{2\pi}\) \(1.054\,571\,818\times10^{-34}\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot m^2\cdot s^{-1}}\)
    Boltzmann constant \(k_{\mathrm B}\) \(1.380\,649\times10^{-23}\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot m^2\cdot s^{-2}\cdot K^{-1}}\)
    Avogadro constant \(N_{\mathrm A}\) \(6.022\,140\,76\times10^{23}\) \(\mathrm{mol^{-1}}\)
    Molar gas constant \(R\) \(8.314\,462\,618\,153\,24\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot m^2\cdot s^{-2}\cdot mol^{-1}\cdot K^{-1}}\)
    Elementary charge \(e\) \(1.602\,176\,634\times10^{-19}\) \(\mathrm{A\cdot s}\)
    Universal constant of gravitation \(G\) \(6.674\,30(15)\times10^{-11}\) \(\mathrm{m^3\cdot kg^{-1}\cdot s^{-2}}\)
    Standard acceleration due to gravity \(g\) \(9.806\,65\) \(\mathrm{m\cdot s^{-2}}\)
    Stefan Boltzmann constant \(\sigma\) \(5.670\,374\,419\times10^{-8}\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot s^{-3}\cdot K^{-4}}\)
    Vacuum permeability (magnetic constant) \(\mu_0\) \(1.256\,637\,061\,27(20)\times10^{-6}\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot m\cdot A^{-2}\cdot s^{-2}}\)
    Vacuum permittivity (electrical constant) \(\epsilon_0\) \(8.854\,187\,818\,8(14)\times10^{-12}\) \(\mathrm{A^2\cdot s^4\cdot kg^{-1}\cdot m^{-3}}\)
    Rydberg constant \(R_\infty\) \(1.097\,373\,156\,815\,7(12)\times10^7\) \(\mathrm{m^{-1}}\)
    Mass of the electron \(m_e\) \(9.109\,383\,713\,9(28)\times10^{-31}\) \(\mathrm{kg}\)
    Mass of the proton \(m_p\) \(1.672\,621\,925\,95(52)\times10^{-27}\) \(\mathrm{kg}\)
    Mass of the neutron \(m_n\) \(1.674\,927\,500\,56(85)\times10^{-27}\) \(\mathrm{kg}\)
    Atomic mass constant \(m_u\) \(1.660\,539\,068\,92(52)\times10^{-27}\) \(\mathrm{kg}\)
    Electronvolt \(\mathrm{eV}\) \(1.602\,176\,634\times10^{-19}\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot m^2\cdot s^{-2}}\)

    Official English text of the problem.

  2. Problem 2: Cox's Timepiece

    In 1765, British clockmaker James Cox invented a clock whose only source of energy is the fluctuations in atmospheric pressure. Cox's clock used two vessels containing mercury. Changes in atmospheric pressure caused mercury to move between the vessels, and the two vessels to move relative to each other. This movement acted as an energy source for the actual clock.

    We propose an analysis of this device. Throughout, we assume that

    • the Earth's gravitational field \(\vec g=-g\vec u_z\) is uniform with \(g=9.8\,\mathrm{m\cdot s^{-2}}\) and \(\vec u_z\) a unit vector;
    • all liquids are incompressible and their density is denoted \(\rho\);
    • no surface tension effects will be considered;
    • the variations of atmospheric pressure with altitude are neglected;
    • the surrounding temperature \(T_a\) is uniform and all transformations are isothermal.
    Figure 1

    Fig. 1. Artistic view of Cox's clock \({}^{1}\)

    Part A - Pulling on a submerged tube

    We first consider a bath of water that occupies the semi-infinite space \(z\leq0\). The air above it is at a pressure \(P_a=P_0\). A cylindrical vertical tube of length \(H=1\,\mathrm m\), cross-sectional area \(S=10\,\mathrm{cm^2}\) and mass \(m=0.5\,\mathrm{kg}\) is dipped into the bath. The bottom end of the tube is open, and the top end of the tube is closed. We denote \(h\) the altitude of the top of the tube and \(z_\ell\) that of the water inside the tube. The thickness of the tube walls is neglected.

    Figure 2

    Fig. 2. Sketch of the tube in different configurations

    We start from the situation where the tube in Fig. 2 contains no gas and its top is at the bath level: in other words, \(h=0\) and \(z_\ell=0\) (case a). The tube is then slowly lifted until its bottom end reaches the bath level. The pulling force exerted on the tube is denoted \(\vec F=F\vec u_z\).

    A.1 — 0.2pt

    For the configuration shown in Fig. 2 (case b), express the pressure \(P_w\) in the water at the top of the tube. Also express the force \(\vec F\) necessary to maintain the tube at this position. Expressions must be written in terms of \(P_0,\rho,m,S,h,g\) and \(\vec u_z\).

    Three experiments are performed. In each, the tube is lifted from the initial state shown in Fig. 2(a) under the conditions specified in Table 1.

    Experiment Liquid \(T_a\) (°C) \(\rho\) (\(\mathrm{kg\cdot m^{-3}}\)) \(P_{\mathrm{sat}}\) (Pa)
    1 Water 20 \(1.00\times10^3\) \(2.34\times10^3\)
    2 Water 80 \(0.97\times10^3\) \(47.4\times10^3\)
    3 Water 99 \(0.96\times10^3\) \(99.8\times10^3\)

    Table 1. Experimental conditions and numerical values of physical quantities for each experiment

    (\(P_{\mathrm{sat}}\) designates the saturated vapour pressure of the pure fluid)

    In each case, we study the evolution of the force \(F\) that must be applied in order to maintain the tube in equilibrium at an altitude \(h\), the external pressure being fixed at \(P_a=P_0=1.000\times10^5\,\mathrm{Pa}\). Two different behaviours are possible

    Figure 3

    A.2 — 0.8pt

    For each experiment, complete the table in the answer sheet to indicate the expected behaviour and the numerical values for \(F_{\max}\) and for \(h^\star\) (when pertinent), where \(F_{\max}\) and \(h^\star\) are defined in the figures illustrating the two behaviours.

    Figure 4

    When we replace the water with liquid mercury (whose properties are given below), behaviour B is observed.

    Liquid \(T_a\) (°C) \(\rho\) (\(\mathrm{kg\cdot m^{-3}}\)) \(P_{\mathrm{sat}}\) (Pa)
    Mercury 20 \(13.5\times10^3\) \(0.163\)

    A.3 — 0.3pt

    Express the relative error, denoted \(\varepsilon\), committed when we evaluate the maximal force \(F_{\max}\) neglecting \(P_{\mathrm{sat}}\) compared to \(P_0\). Give the numerical value of \(\varepsilon\).

    Part B - Two-part barometric tube

    From now on, we work with mercury (density \(\rho=13.5\times10^3\,\mathrm{kg\cdot m^{-3}}\)) at the ambient temperature \(T_a=20^\circ\mathrm C\) and we take \(P_{\mathrm{sat}}=0\).

    Let us consider a tube with a reservoir on top, modeled as two superposed cylinders of different dimensions, as shown in Fig. 3.

    • the bottom part (still called the tube) has cross-sectional area \(S_t\) and height \(H_t=80\,\mathrm{cm}\);
    • the top part (called the bulb) has cross-sectional area \(S_b>S_t\) and height \(H_b=20\,\mathrm{cm}\).

    This two-part tube is dipped into a semi-infinite liquid bath.

    Figure 5

    Fig. 3. Sketch of the two-part barometric tube

    As in Part A, the system is prepared such that the tube contains no air. We identify the vertical position of the tube by the altitude \(h_t\) of the junction between the tube and the bulb. The height of the column of mercury is again denoted \(z_\ell\). The force \(\vec F\) that must be exerted to maintain the tube in equilibrium in the configuration shown in Fig. 3 can now be written as

    \[ \vec F=(m_{\mathrm{tb}}+m_{\mathrm{add}})g\vec u_z \tag{1} \]

    where \(m_{\mathrm{tb}}\) is the total mass of the two-part tube (when empty of mercury).

    B.1 — 0.3pt

    On the answer sheet, color the area corresponding to the volume of liquid mercury that is responsible for the term \(m_{\mathrm{add}}\) appearing in equation (1).

    Figure 6

    The mass \(m_{\mathrm{add}}\) depends both on the height \(h_t\) and the atmospheric pressure \(P_a\). For the next question, assume that the atmospheric pressure is fixed at \(P_a=P_0=1.000\times10^5\,\mathrm{Pa}\). Starting from the situation where the system is completely submerged, the tube is slowly lifted until its base is flush with the liquid bath.

    B.2 — 1.4pt

    Sketch the evolution of the mass \(m_{\mathrm{add}}\) as a function of \(h_t\) for \(h_t\in[-H_b,H_t]\). On the graph, provide the expression for the slopes of the different segments, as well as the \(h_t\) analytical value of any angular points, in terms of \(P_0,\rho,g,S_b,S_t,H_b\) and \(H_t\).

    Figure 7

    As the system is lifted while \(P_a=P_0=10^5\,\mathrm{Pa}\), we stop when the free surface of the liquid is in the middle of the bulb. The value of \(h_t\) is fixed and then we observe variations in the mass \(m_{\mathrm{add}}\) due to variations in the atmospheric pressure described by

    \[ P_a(t)=P_0+P_1(t) \tag{2} \]

    where \(P_0\) designates the average value and \(P_1\) is a perturbative term. We model \(P_1\) by a periodic triangular function of amplitude \(A=5\times10^2\,\mathrm{Pa}\) and period \(\tau_1\) of 1 week.

    Figure 8

    Fig. 4. Simplified model of the perturbative term \(P_1(t)\)

    B.3 — 0.3pt

    Given that \(S_t=5\,\mathrm{cm^2}\) and \(S_b=200\,\mathrm{cm^2}\), express the amplitude \(\Delta m_{\mathrm{add}}\) of the variations of the mass \(m_{\mathrm{add}}\) over time, then give its numerical value. Assume that the liquid surface always stays in the bulb.

    Part C - Cox's timepiece

    The real mechanism developed by Cox is complex (Fig. 5). We study a simplified version, depicted in Fig. 6, and described below

    • a cylindrical bottom cistern containing a mercury bath;
    • a two-part barometric tube identical to that studied in part B, which is still completely emptied of any air, is dipped into the bath;
    • the cistern and the two-part tube are each suspended by a cable. Both cables (assumed to be inextensible and of negligible mass) pass through a system of ideal pullies and finish attached to either side of the same mass \(M\), which can slide on a horizontal surface;
    • the total volume of liquid mercury contained in the system is \(V_\ell=5\,\mathrm L\).

    The height, cross-section and masses of each part are given in Table 2. The position of mass \(M\) is referenced by the coordinate \(x\) of its center of mass. We consider solid friction between the horizontal support and the mass \(M\), without distinction between static and dynamic coefficients; the magnitude of this force when sliding occurs is denoted \(F_s\).

    Two stops limit the displacement of the mass \(M\) such that \(-X\leq x\leq X\) (with \(X>0\)). Assume that the value of \(X\) guarantees that

    • the bottom of the two-part tube never touches the bottom of the cistern nor comes out of the liquid bath;
    • the altitude \(z_\ell\) of the mercury column is always in the upper bulb.
    Figure 9

    Fig. 5. Real Cox's timepiece \({}^{2}\) (without mercury)

    Figure 10

    Fig. 6. Sketch of the system modeling the timepiece

    Reference Name Height Cross section area Empty mass
    \(\boxed{1}\) cistern \(H_c=30\,\mathrm{cm}\) \(S_c=210\,\mathrm{cm^2}\) \(m_c\)
    \(\boxed{2}\) tubular part of the barometric tube \(H_t=80\,\mathrm{cm}\) \(S_t=5\,\mathrm{cm^2}\) total mass of the barometric tube: \(m_{\mathrm{tb}}\)
    \(\boxed{2'}\) bulb of the barometric tube \(H_b=20\,\mathrm{cm}\) \(S_b=200\,\mathrm{cm^2}\)

    Table 2. Dimensions and notations for the model system

    The system evolves in contact with the atmosphere, whose pressure fluctuates as in Fig. 4 (still with amplitude \(A=5\times10^2\,\mathrm{Pa}\) and period \(\tau_1=1\) week). At the start \(t=0\), the mass \(M\) is at rest at \(x=0\) and the tensions exerted by the two cables on either side of the mass \(M\) are in balance while \(P_1(0)=0\). We define

    \[ \xi= \frac{S_b+S_c-S_t}{S_bS_c}\frac{F_s}{A} \simeq \frac{S_b+S_c}{S_bS_c}\frac{F_s}{A} \tag{3} \]

    where the last expression uses that \(S_t\ll S_b,S_c\) (which we will assume is valid until the end of the problem).

    C.1 — 1pt

    Determine the threshold \(\xi^\star\) such that \(M\) remains indefinitely at rest when \(\xi>\xi^\star\).

    For the next question only, suppose that the mass \(M\) is temporarily blocked at \(x=X\).

    C.2 — 1pt

    Give an expression for the total tension force \(\vec T=T\vec u_x\) acting on the mass \(M\) due to the tension in two cables at this position, when \(P_1=0\), in terms of \(\rho,g,X\) and pertinent cross-sections.

    When \(\xi<\xi^\star\), starting again from \(x=0\) and \(P_1=0\), two different behaviours can be observed for \(t\geq0\). To distinguish them, we need to introduce another parameter

    \[ \lambda= \frac{2(S_b-S_t)}{S_b}\frac{\rho gX}{A} \simeq \frac{2\rho gX}{A} \tag{4} \]

    C.3 — 2pt

    Complete the table in the answer sheet to indicate the condition under which each regime is obtained. Conditions must be expressed as inequalities on \(\xi\) and/or \(\lambda\). In addition, sketch the variations of \(x(t)/X\) for \(t\in[0,3\tau_1]\) that are consistent with the variations of \(P_1(t)/A\) already present. Specification of remarkable points coordinates is not required.

    Figure 11

    In the real Cox's timepiece, energy provided by the mechanism is stored using a system of ratchets and used to raise a counterweight, like in a traditional clock. In the simplified model studied here, the energy recovered by the clock corresponds to the energy dissipated by the friction force exerted by the horizontal surface on the mass \(M\). From now on, we assume that the system is dimensioned such that to work in the regime that allows the clock to recuperate energy. We also assume that the permanent regime is established. We denote \(W\) the energy dissipated by the solid friction force during a period \(\tau_1\), which can be expressed only in terms of \(F_s\) and \(X\).

    All else equal, \(F_s\) and \(X\) can be adjusted to maximize the energy \(W\); we denote \(F_s^\star\) and \(X^\star\) their respective values in the optimal situation.

    C.4 — 1pt

    Considering \(S_b\simeq S_c\) and \(S_t\ll S_b\), determine the expressions for \(F_s^\star\) and \(X^\star\) as functions of \(\rho,g,S_c\) and \(A\). Express the corresponding maximum energy \(W^\star\), then calculate its numerical value with \(A=5\times10^2\,\mathrm{Pa}\).

    We denote \(W_{\mathrm{pr}}^\star\) the work of atmospheric pressure forces received by the system in the optimal situation during a period \(\tau_1\).

    C.5 — 1.7pt

    Express \(W_{\mathrm{pr}}^\star\), then calculate the ratio \(W^\star/W_{\mathrm{pr}}^\star\). It could be useful to represent the evolution of the system in a \((P,V)\) diagram, where \(V\) is the system's volume.

    Credits:

    [1]: Bruno Vacaro;
    [2]: Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

    Official English text of the problem.

  3. Problem 3: Champagne!

    Warning: Excessive alcohol consumption is harmful to health and drinking alcohol below legal age is prohibited.

    Champagne is a French sparkling wine. Fermentation of sugars produces carbon dioxide (\(\mathrm{CO}_2\)) in the bottle. The molar concentration of \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) in the liquid phase \(c_\ell\) and the partial pressure \(P_{\mathrm{CO}_2}\) in the gas phase are related by \(c_\ell=k_{\mathrm H}P_{\mathrm{CO}_2}\), known as Henry's law and where \(k_{\mathrm H}\) is called Henry's constant.

    Data

    • Surface tension of champagne \(\sigma=47\times10^{-3}\,\mathrm{J\cdot m^{-2}}\)
    • Density of the liquid \(\rho_\ell=1.0\times10^3\,\mathrm{kg\cdot m^{-3}}\)
    • Henry's constant at \(T_0=20^\circ\mathrm C\), \(k_{\mathrm H}(20^\circ\mathrm C)=3.3\times10^{-4}\,\mathrm{mol\cdot m^{-3}\cdot Pa^{-1}}\)
    • Henry's constant at \(T_0=6^\circ\mathrm C\), \(k_{\mathrm H}(6^\circ\mathrm C)=5.4\times10^{-4}\,\mathrm{mol\cdot m^{-3}\cdot Pa^{-1}}\)
    • Atmospheric pressure \(P_0=1\,\mathrm{bar}=1.0\times10^5\,\mathrm{Pa}\)
    • Gases are ideal with an adiabatic coefficient \(\gamma=1.3\)
    Figure 1

    Fig. 1. A glass filled with champagne.

    Part A. Nucleation, growth and rise of bubbles

    Immediately after opening a bottle of champagne at temperature \(T_0=20^\circ\mathrm C\), we fill a glass. The pressure in the liquid is \(P_0\) and its temperature stays constant at \(T_0\). The concentration \(c_\ell\) of dissolved \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) exceeds the equilibrium concentration and we study the nucleation of a \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) bubble. We note \(a\) its radius and \(P_{\mathrm b}\) its inner pressure.

    A.1 — 0.2pt

    Express the pressure \(P_{\mathrm b}\) in terms of \(P_0\), \(a\) and \(\sigma\).

    In the liquid, the concentration of dissolved \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) depends on the distance to the bubble. At long distance we recover the value \(c_\ell\) and we note \(c_{\mathrm b}\) the concentration close to the bubble surface. According to Henry's law, \(c_{\mathrm b}=k_{\mathrm H}P_{\mathrm b}\). We furthermore assume in all the problem that bubbles contain only \(\mathrm{CO}_2\).

    Since \(c_\ell\ne c_{\mathrm b}\), \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) molecules diffuse from areas of high to low concentration. We assume also that any molecule from the liquid phase reaching the bubble surface is transferred to the vapour.

    A.2 — 0.5pt

    Express the critical radius \(a_{\mathrm c}\) above which a bubble is expected to grow in terms of \(P_0,\sigma,c_\ell\) and \(c_0\) where \(c_0=k_{\mathrm H}P_0\). Calculate numerically \(a_{\mathrm c}\) for \(c_\ell=4c_0\).

    In practice, bubbles mainly grow from pre-existing gas cavities. Consider then a bubble with initial radius \(a_0\approx40\,\mu\mathrm m\). The number of moles of \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) transferred at the bubble's surface per unit area and time is noted \(j\). Two models are possible for \(j\).

    • model (1) \(j=\dfrac{D}{a}(c_\ell-c_{\mathrm b})\) where \(D\) is the diffusion coefficient of \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) in the liquid.
    • model (2) \(j=K(c_\ell-c_{\mathrm b})\) where \(K\) is a constant here.

    Experimentally, the bubble radius \(a(t)\) is found to depend on time as shown in Fig. 2. Here \(c_\ell\approx4c_0\), and since bubbles are large enough to be visible, the excess pressure due to surface tension can be neglected and \(P_{\mathrm b}\approx P_0\).

    A.3 — 1.2pt

    Express the number of \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) moles in the bubble \(n_{\mathrm c}\) in terms of \(a,P_0,T_0\) and ideal gas constant \(R\). Find \(a(t)\) for both models. Indicate which model explains the experimental results in Fig. 2. Depending on your answer, calculate numerically \(K\) or \(D\).

    Figure 2

    Fig. 2. Time evolution of \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) bubble radius in a glass of champagne (adapted from [1]).

    Eventually bubbles detach from the bottom of the glass and continue to grow while rising. Fig. 3. shows a train of bubbles. The bubbles of the train have the same initial radius and are emitted at a constant frequency \(f_{\mathrm b}=20\,\mathrm{Hz}\).

    Figure 3

    Fig. 3. A train of bubbles. The photo is rotated horizontally for the page layout (adapted from [1]).

    For the range of velocities studied here, the drag force \(F\) on a bubble of radius \(a\) moving at velocity \(v\) in a liquid of dynamic viscosity \(\eta\) is given by Stokes' law \(F=6\pi\eta av\). Measurements show that at any moment in time, the bubble can be assumed to be travelling at its terminal velocity.

    A.4 — 0.8pt

    Give the expression of the main forces exerted on a vertically rising bubble. Obtain the expression of \(v(a)\). Give a numerical estimate of \(\eta\) using \(\rho_\ell\), \(g_0\) and quantities measured on Fig. 3.

    The quasi-stationary growth of bubbles with rate \(q_a=\dfrac{\mathrm da}{\mathrm dt}\) still applies during bubble rise.

    A.5 — 0.5pt

    Express the radius \(a_{H_\ell}\) of a bubble reaching the free surface in terms of height travelled \(H_\ell\), growth rate \(q_a=\dfrac{\mathrm da}{\mathrm dt}\), and any constants you may need. Assume \(a_{H_\ell}\gg a_0\) and \(q_a\) constant, and give the numerical value of \(a_{H_\ell}\) with \(H_\ell=10\,\mathrm{cm}\) and \(q_a\) corresponding to Fig. 2.

    There are \(N_{\mathrm b}\) nucleation sites of bubbles. Assume that the bubbles are nucleated at a constant frequency \(f_{\mathrm b}\) at the bottom of a glass of champagne (height \(H_\ell\) for a volume \(V_\ell\)), with \(a_0\) still negligible. Neglect diffusion of \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) at the free surface.

    A.6 — 1.1pt

    Write the differential equation for \(c_\ell(t)\). Obtain from this equation the characteristic time \(\tau\) for the decay of the concentration of dissolved \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) in the liquid.

    Part B. Acoustic emission of a bursting bubble

    Small bubbles are nearly spherical as they reach the free surface. Once the liquid film separating the bubble from the air thins out sufficiently, a circular hole of radius \(r\) forms in the film and, driven by surface tension, opens very quickly (Fig. 4. left). The hole opens at constant speed \(v_{\mathrm f}\) (Fig. 4. right). The film outside the rim remains still, with constant thickness \(h\).

    Figure 4

    Fig. 4. (Left) \((\alpha)\) Bubble at the surface: (1) liquid, (2) air at pressure \(P_0\) and (3), \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) at pressure \(P_{\mathrm b}\), \((\beta)\) and \((\gamma)\) retraction of the liquid film, where the rim is in dark blue, \((\delta)\) bubble collapse. (Right) Retraction of the liquid film at time \(t\). Top: sketch of the pierced film seen from above. Bottom: cross-section of the rim and the retracting film. During \(\mathrm dt\) the rim accumulates nearby liquid (dotted).

    Due to dissipative processes, only half of the difference of the surface energy between \(t\) and \(t+\mathrm dt\) of the rim and the accumulated liquid is transformed into kinetic energy. We further assume that the variation of the surface of the rim is negligible compared to that of the film.

    B.1 — 1.1pt

    Express \(v_{\mathrm f}\) in terms of \(\rho_\ell,\sigma\) and \(h\).

    Figure 5

    Fig. 5. (Left) a Helmholtz resonator. (Right) a bubble as an oscillator.

    When the film bursts, it releases internal pressure and emits a sound. We model this acoustic emission by a Helmholtz resonator: a cavity open to the atmosphere at \(P_0\) through a bottleneck aperture of area \(S\) (Fig. 5. left). In the neck, a mass \(m_{\mathrm p}\) makes small amplitude position oscillations due to the pressure forces it experiences as the gas in the cavity expands or compresses adiabatically. The gravity force on \(m_{\mathrm p}\) is negligible compared to pressure forces. Let \(V_0\) be the volume of gas under the mass \(m_{\mathrm p}\) for \(P=P_0\) as \(z=0\).

    B.2 — 1.1pt

    Express the frequency of oscillation \(f_0\) of \(m_{\mathrm p}\). Hint: for \(\varepsilon\ll1\), \((1+\varepsilon)^\alpha\approx1+\alpha\varepsilon\).

    The Helmholtz model may be used for a bubble of radius \(a\). \(V_0\) is the volume of the closed bubble. From litterature, the mass of the equivalent of the piston is \(m_{\mathrm p}=8\rho_{\mathrm g}r^3/3\) where \(r\) is the radius of the circular aperture and \(\rho_{\mathrm g}=1.8\,\mathrm{kg\cdot m^{-3}}\) is the density of the gas (Fig. 5. right). During the bursting process, \(r\) goes from \(0\) to \(r_{\mathrm c}\), given by \[ r_{\mathrm c}=\frac{2}{\sqrt3}a^2\sqrt{\frac{\rho_\ell g_0}{\sigma}}. \] At the same time, the frequency of emitted sound increases until a maximum value of \(40\,\mathrm{kHz}\) and the bursting time is \(t_{\mathrm b}=3\times10^{-2}\,\mathrm{ms}\).

    B.3 — 1.1pt

    Find the radius \(a\) and the thickness \(h\) of the champagne film separating the bubble from the atmosphere.

    Part C. Popping champagne

    In a bottle, the total quantity of \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) is \(n_{\mathrm T}=0.2\,\mathrm{mol}\), either dissolved in the volume \(V_{\mathrm L}=750\,\mathrm{mL}\) of liquid champagne, or as a gas in the volume \(V_{\mathrm G}=25\,\mathrm{mL}\) under the cork (Fig. 6. left). \(V_{\mathrm G}\) contains only \(\mathrm{CO}_2\). The equilibrium between both \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) phases follows Henry's Law. We suppose that the fast gaseous \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) expansion when the bottle is opened, is adiabatic and reversible. Ambient temperature \(T_0\) and pressure \(P_0=1\,\mathrm{bar}\) are constant.

    Figure 6

    Fig. 6. Left: traditional bottleneck: (1) surrounding air, (2) cork stopper, (3) headspace, (4) liquid champagne. Right: Two phenomena observed while opening the bottle at two different temperatures (adapted from [2]).

    C.1 — 0.4pt

    Give the numerical value of the pressure \(P_{\mathrm i}\) of gaseous \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) in the bottle for \(T_0=6^\circ\mathrm C\) and \(T_0=20^\circ\mathrm C\).

    Another step of champagne production (not described here) leads to the following values of \(P_{\mathrm i}\) that we will use for the next questions: \(P_{\mathrm i}=4.69\,\mathrm{bar}\) at \(T_0=6^\circ\mathrm C\) and \(P_{\mathrm i}=7.45\,\mathrm{bar}\) at \(T_0=20^\circ\mathrm C\).

    During bottle opening, two different phenomena can be observed, depending on \(T_0\) (Fig. 6. right).

    • either a blue fog appears, due to the formation of solid \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) crystals (but water condensation is inhibited);
    • or a grey-white fog appears, due to water vapor condensation in the air surrounding the bottleneck. In this latter case, there is no formation of \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) solid crystals.

    The saturated vapor pressure \(P_{\mathrm{sat}}^{\mathrm{CO}_2}\) for the \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) solid/gas transition follows: \[ \log_{10}\left(\frac{P_{\mathrm{sat}}^{\mathrm{CO}_2}}{P_0}\right) =A-\frac{B}{T+C} \] with \(T\) in \(\mathrm K\), \(A=6.81\), \(B=1.30\times10^3\,\mathrm K\) and \(C=-3.49\,\mathrm K\).

    C.2 — 0.7pt

    Give the numerical value \(T_{\mathrm f}\) of the \(\mathrm{CO}_2\) gas at the end of the expansion, after opening a bottle, if \(T_0=6^\circ\mathrm C\) and if \(T_0=20^\circ\mathrm C\), if no phase transition occured.

    Choose which statements are true (several statements possible):

    1. At \(T_0=6^\circ\mathrm C\) a grey-white fog appears while opening the bottle.
    2. At \(T_0=6^\circ\mathrm C\) a blue fog appears while opening the bottle.
    3. At \(T_0=20^\circ\mathrm C\) a grey-white fog appears while opening the bottle.
    4. At \(T_0=20^\circ\mathrm C\) a blue fog appears while opening the bottle.

    During bottle opening, the cork stopper pops out. We now determine the maximum height \(H_{\mathrm c}\) it reaches. Assume that the friction force \(F\) due to the bottleneck on the cork stopper is \(F=\alpha A\) where \(A\) is the area of contact and \(\alpha\) is a constant to determine. Initially, the pressure force slightly overcomes the friction force. The cork's mass is \(m=10\,\mathrm g\), its diameter \(d=1.8\,\mathrm{cm}\) and the length of the cylindrical part initially stuck in the bottleneck is \(\ell_0=2.5\,\mathrm{cm}\). Once the cork has left the bottleneck, you can neglect the net pressure force.

    C.3 — 1.3pt

    Give the numerical value of \(H_{\mathrm c}\) if the external temperature is \(T_0=6^\circ\mathrm C\).

    [1] Liger-Belair et al, Am. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 50, No. 3 (1999).

    [2] Liger-Belair et al., Sc. Reports 7, 10938 (2017).

    General Data Sheet

    Constant Notation Value Unit
    Speed of light in vacuum \(c\) \(2.997\,924\,58\times10^8\) \(\mathrm{m\cdot s^{-1}}\)
    Planck constant \(h\) \(6.626\,070\,15\times10^{-34}\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot m^2\cdot s^{-1}}\)
    Reduced Planck constant \(\hbar=\dfrac{h}{2\pi}\) \(1.054\,571\,818\times10^{-34}\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot m^2\cdot s^{-1}}\)
    Boltzmann constant \(k_{\mathrm B}\) \(1.380\,649\times10^{-23}\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot m^2\cdot s^{-2}\cdot K^{-1}}\)
    Avogadro constant \(N_{\mathrm A}\) \(6.022\,140\,76\times10^{23}\) \(\mathrm{mol^{-1}}\)
    Molar gas constant \(R\) \(8.314\,462\,618\,153\,24\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot m^2\cdot s^{-2}\cdot mol^{-1}\cdot K^{-1}}\)
    Elementary charge \(e\) \(1.602\,176\,634\times10^{-19}\) \(\mathrm{A\cdot s}\)
    Universal constant of gravitation \(G\) \(6.674\,30(15)\times10^{-11}\) \(\mathrm{m^3\cdot kg^{-1}\cdot s^{-2}}\)
    Standard acceleration due to gravity \(g\) \(9.806\,65\) \(\mathrm{m\cdot s^{-2}}\)
    Stefan Boltzmann constant \(\sigma\) \(5.670\,374\,419\times10^{-8}\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot s^{-3}\cdot K^{-4}}\)
    Vacuum permeability (magnetic constant) \(\mu_0\) \(1.256\,637\,061\,27(20)\times10^{-6}\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot m\cdot A^{-2}\cdot s^{-2}}\)
    Vacuum permittivity (electrical constant) \(\epsilon_0\) \(8.854\,187\,818\,8(14)\times10^{-12}\) \(\mathrm{A^2\cdot s^4\cdot kg^{-1}\cdot m^{-3}}\)
    Rydberg constant \(R_\infty\) \(1.097\,373\,156\,815\,7(12)\times10^7\) \(\mathrm{m^{-1}}\)
    Mass of the electron \(m_{\mathrm e}\) \(9.109\,383\,713\,9(28)\times10^{-31}\) \(\mathrm{kg}\)
    Mass of the proton \(m_{\mathrm p}\) \(1.672\,621\,925\,95(52)\times10^{-27}\) \(\mathrm{kg}\)
    Mass of the neutron \(m_{\mathrm n}\) \(1.674\,927\,500\,56(85)\times10^{-27}\) \(\mathrm{kg}\)
    Atomic mass constant \(m_{\mathrm u}\) \(1.660\,539\,068\,92(52)\times10^{-27}\) \(\mathrm{kg}\)
    Electronvolt \(\mathrm{eV}\) \(1.602\,176\,634\times10^{-19}\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot m^2\cdot s^{-2}}\)

    Official English text of the problem.