International Physics Olympiad

IPhO 2026

Bucaramanga, Colombia · 3 theory problems with complete solutions

  1. Problem 1: Three problems (A: Hydrostatic gate; B: Electron-positron pair; C: Photodissociation of ozone)

    QUESTION T1 [10 pts]. Three problems

    This question consists of three independent problems.

    T1-A [3.0 pts]. Hydrostatic gate

    Figure 1

    Fig. 1a.

    Two water reservoirs are separated by a vertical wall MN, as shown in the figure 1a. The left reservoir can receive water from a source. It must be ensured that the maximum possible difference between the water levels is \(\Delta h = 1.41\ \mathrm{m}\). To achieve this, a slot of vertical size \(a\sqrt{2}/2\) is cut in MN and sealed with a solid cubic block of side length \(a\). The block has density \(3\rho_0\), with \(\rho_0\) the density of water. The block is fully submerged, fixed to the wall at \(O\) and can rotate without friction about the axis perpendicular to the plane of the figure that passes through point \(O\).

    T1-A1 [3.0 pts]. Calculate the value of \(a\) that ensures the maximum permissible difference in water levels is not exceeded.

    T1-B [3.5 pts]. Electron-positron pair

    Figure 2

    Fig. 1b.

    At a certain instant of time, a positron \(e^+\) is located at a distance of \(100a_0\) from an electron \(e^-\). The particles are moving in such a way that their velocities are antiparallel at that instant, perpendicular to their separation, as shown in figure 1b. It is known that each particle has an angular momentum of magnitude \(\mu\hbar\) with respect to the system's center of mass, where \(\mu\) is a dimensionless numerical factor. Assume that the only interaction between \(e^+\) and \(e^-\) is electrostatic (both particles have the same mass \(m\) and equal magnitude of the charge but of opposite sign). Furthermore, assume that this system remains isolated and that its dynamics are classical and non-relativistic.

    The Bohr radius \(a_0\) is given by \(a_0 = 4\pi\epsilon_0\hbar^2/(me^2)\).

    T1-B1 [1.0 pts]. If \(\mu = 4\), the system is bound, meaning that the particles move in a closed orbit around the system's center of mass. Find the maximum separation distance between \(e^+\) and \(e^-\) in terms of \(a_0\).

    T1-B2 [2.5 pts]. If \(\mu = \frac{15}{2}\), the system is unbound, meaning that the particles are no longer in closed orbit around the system's center of mass. Let \(\vec{u}_\infty\) be the velocity of \(e^+\) relative to \(e^-\) as the separation distance between them tends to infinity. Calculate the angle between \(\vec{u}_\infty\) and the initial line of motion of \(e^+\). Give your answer in degrees.

    Hint 1: The eccentricty \(\varepsilon\) of a conic trajectory for the present case is given by

    \[ \varepsilon = \sqrt{1+\frac{4L^2E}{k^2e^4m}} \]

    where \(E\) and \(L\) are the total energy and the magnitude of the total angular momentum, respectively. \(k\) is Coulombs constant \(k = 1/(4\pi\epsilon_0)\).

    Hint 2: The equation of a conic in polar coordinates is

    \[ r = \frac{a}{1-\varepsilon\cos(\theta)} \]

    T1-C [3.5 pts]. Photodissociation of ozone

    Figure 3

    Fig. 1c.

    A photon with angular frequency \(\omega\) strikes an ozone molecule \(\mathrm{O}_3\) at rest, dissociating it (breaking it apart) into an oxygen molecule \(\mathrm{O}_2\) and an oxygen atom \(\mathrm{O}\), as shown in figure 1c. The photon is absorbed in this process. Let \(U_i\) and \(U_f\) be the ground state energies of the ozone and oxygen molecules, respectively. Assume that this system remains isolated and that its dynamics is classical (potential energies do not contribute to mass and the motion of the Oxygen atoms are non-relativistic). Use the relation \(p = E/c\) for the linear momentum of the photon, where \(E\) is its energy.

    T1-C1 [2.5 pts]. If the angle that the momentum of the outgoing \(\mathrm{O}_2\) with respect to the incident photon is \(\theta\), determine the minimum angular frequency \(\omega_{\min}\) required for this dissociation to occur at this angle. Write your answer in terms of \(\hbar\), \(c\), \(\theta\), \(\Delta U = U_f-U_i\), and the mass \(m\) of an oxygen atom.

    T1-C2 [1.0 pts]. If \(\theta = \pi/6\), calculate the value of \(\hbar\omega_{\min}-\Delta U\). Give your answer in electronvolts (eV). Take \(\Delta U = 1.10\ \mathrm{eV}\) and \(m = 16.0\ \mathrm{amu}\).

    Hint:

    \[ (1+x)^r =1+rx+\frac{r(r-1)}{2!}x^2 +\frac{r(r-1)(r-2)}{3!}x^3+\cdots \]

    Physical Constants

    Reference values for selected physical constants.

    Constant Notation Value Units
    Speed of light in vacuum \(c\) \(2.99792458\times10^8\) \(\mathrm{m\cdot s^{-1}}\)
    Planck constant \(h\) \(4.135667696\ldots\times10^{-15}\) \(\mathrm{eV\cdot s}\)
    Reduced Planck constant \(\hbar=h/2\pi\) \(6.582119569\ldots\times10^{-16}\) \(\mathrm{eV\cdot s}\)
    Avogadro number \(N_A\) \(6.02214076\times10^{23}\) \(\mathrm{mol^{-1}}\)
    Boltzmann constant \(k_B\) \(8.617333262\times10^{-5}\) \(\mathrm{eV\cdot K^{-1}}\)
    Ideal gas constant \(R\) \(8.31446261815324\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot m^2\cdot s^{-2}\cdot mol^{-1}\cdot K^{-1}}\)
    Elementary charge \(e\) \(1.602176634\times10^{-19}\) \(\mathrm{A\cdot s}\)
    Universal gravitational constant \(G\) \(6.67430(15)\times10^{-11}\) \(\mathrm{m^3\cdot kg^{-1}\cdot s^{-2}}\)
    Stefan Boltzmann constant \(\sigma\) \(5.670374419\times10^{-8}\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot s^{-3}\cdot K^{-4}}\)
    Vacuum permeability \(\mu_0\) \(1.25663706127(20)\times10^{-6}\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot m\cdot A^{-2}\cdot s^{-2}}\)
    Vacuum permittivity \(\epsilon_0\) \(8.8541878188(14)\times10^{-12}\) \(\mathrm{A^2\cdot s^4\cdot kg^{-1}\cdot m^{-3}}\)
    Mass of the electron \(m_e\) \(5.1099895069(16)\times10^5\) \(\mathrm{eV}/c^2\)
    Mass of the proton \(m_p\) \(9.3827208943(29)\times10^8\) \(\mathrm{eV}/c^2\)
    Atomic mass units amu \(9.3149410372(29)\times10^8\) \(\mathrm{eV}/c^2\)

    Official English text of the problem.

  2. Problem 2: Cooking with sunlight?

    QUESTION T2 [10 pts]. Cooking with sunlight?

    The redistribution of luminous flux into regions of high and low intensity due to reflection or refraction can lead to the formation of caustics: curves formed by the intersection of infinitesimally close light rays. As an example, Figure 2a shows the caustic formed by rays incident paraxially on a half-cylindrical mirror. Figure 2b shows a photograph of the caustic formed by the reflection of light on the bottom part of a coffee cup. The brightest and central point of the caustic is called the cusp; at this point, the light intensity is maximal.

    Figure 1

    Fig. 2a.

    Figure 2

    Fig. 2b.

    Caustics have a variety of applications in science, ranging from high-precision optics and quantum optics to astrophysics. In this question, you will study the caustic formation by light reflection on a half-cylinder mirror of radius \(R\), as shown in figure 2c. You will also investigate other aspects of this mirror, such as its application in solar cookers.

    Throughout the problem, assume that the incident rays come from a distant external light source and are parallel to the mirror's optical axis. By symmetry, it is sufficient to study reflection in one plane. Figure 2d shows such a plane, the mirror, and the coordinate system used throughout the problem.

    Figure 3

    Fig. 2c.

    Figure 4

    Fig. 2d.

    T2-A [1.5 pts]. Multiple reflections

    Figure 5

    Fig.2e.

    Figure 2e shows the relationship between the \(x\)-coordinate of an incident ray and the number \(N\) of reflections it undergoes, up to \(N=3\). As \(x\) varies over the interval \((-R,R)\), the variable \(N\) varies over all natural numbers greater than or equal to 1. The maximum distance from the optical axis that allows an incident ray to be reflected by the mirror at most \(N\) times is denoted \(x_N\).

    T2-A1 [1.5 pts]. Find the general expression for \(x_N\) in the infinite sequence \(x_1,x_2,x_3,\ldots\) that limits the coordinates of the rays with at most \(N\) reflections. Express your answer in terms of \(R\) and \(N\).

    T2-B [4.0 pts]. Solar Cooker

    Figure 6

    Fig.2f.

    Consider a system consisting of a half-hollow-cylinder mirror and a cylindrical container. The cylinder is fully absorbing: any ray of light hitting it will be absorbed. The mirror radius is \(R\). The container radius \(a\). The axes of the mirror and the container are parallel. The center of the container is \(R/2\) from the mirror on the system's symmetry plane, as shown in figure 2f. The mirror harnesses solar radiation to heat food inside the container. Assume that the sunlight is of constant and uniform intensity (power per unit area), and that the light rays are parallel to the optical axis of the mirror. Furthermore, assume that \(a\) is such that any ray that is absorbed by the cylinder reflects from the mirror at most once. Let \(\theta_{\max}\) be the maximum angle of incidence on the mirror (measured with respect to the normal drawn at the point of incidence) of any reflected ray striking the container.

    T2-B1 [2.0 pts]. The container radius is \(a=\alpha\sin(\theta_{\max})+\beta\sin(2\theta_{\max})\). Write \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\) in terms of \(R\).

    If you do not find \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\), use the expression given for the rest of the problem.

    T2-B2 [1.5 pts]. Let \(P_0\) be the power that would be received by the cyllinder if the mirror was not present. Write \(P/P_0\), the ratio of the actual received power \(P\) to \(P_0\), in terms of \(\theta_{\max}\).

    T2-B3 [0.5 pts]. If \(R=1.0\ \mathrm{m}\), write the value of \(a\) such that \(P=5P_0\). Give your answer in cm.

    T2-C [4.5 pts]. Caustics and Cusp

    T2-C1 [0.5 pts]. Consider a ray \(A\) that strikes the mirror at an angle \(\theta\), as shown in Figure 2g. Upon reflection, the equation corresponding to this ray in the coordinate system defined in Figure 2g. is \(y=m_Ax+b_A\). Write \(m_A\) and \(b_A\) in terms of \(\theta\) and \(R\)

    Hint: the expected form of \(m_A=K_1\cot(K_2\theta)\) and \(b_A=R\frac{K_3}{\cos(K_4\theta)}\), with \(K_i\) numerical constants.

    Figure 7

    Fig. 2g.

    T2-C2 [2.0 pts]. Now consider a ray \(B\), parallel to \(A\), that strikes the surface at an angle \(\theta+\Delta\theta\), with \(\Delta\theta\ll\theta\). Upon reflection, the equation corresponding to this ray is \(y=m_Bx+b_B\). Write \(m_B\) and \(b_B\) in terms of \(\theta\), \(\Delta\theta\), and \(R\), approximating to first order in \(\Delta\theta\).

    T2-C3 [1.0 pts]. Find the coordinates of the point of intersection \((X_c,Y_c)\) between the reflected rays of \(A\) and \(B\). Write your answer in terms of \(R\) and \(\theta\).

    T2-C4 [1.0 pts]. For \(\theta\ll1\), we have \(Y_c=v|X_c|^{p/q}+u\). Write \(v\) and \(u\) in terms of \(R\) and find the values of the integers \(p\) and \(q\) (equivalently, give the rational number \(p/q\)).

    Official English text of the problem.

  3. Problem 3: Chasing the absolute zero

    QUESTION T3 [10 pts]. Chasing the absolute zero

    A refrigeration cycle must be carried out by a system with characteristics appropriate for the temperatures to be achieved. One hundred years ago, in 1926, the chemist William Giauque and, independently, the physicist Peter Debye proposed paramagnetic salts as ideal systems for lowering temperatures far below 1 K. Indeed, beginning in the following decade, temperatures as low as 0.0044 K were achieved (Wander de Haas and Gerrit Wiersma, 1935, Leiden Cryogenic Laboratories). In this question, the paramagnetic Carnot refrigeration cycle is studied.

    Figure 1

    Fig. 3a.

    Consider a torus with mean radius \(R\) and inner radius \(r\) made of a homogeneous, isotropic paramagnetic material, around which an insulated conducting wire is wound, with its ends connected to an external voltage source (emf), as shown in figure 3a. The resistance of the wire is so low that energy losses due to the heating of the wire can be neglected. The winding is dense, with \(N\) turns in total, and it is assumed that \(r\ll R\), so that the fields \(\vec H\) and \(\vec B\) and the magnetization \(\vec M\) have approximately constant magnitudes throughout the torus. Let \(V\) and \(A\) be the volume and the cross-section area of the torus. Hereinafter, the abbreviation Pm-T is used to refer to the paramagnetic torus.

    In paramagnetic materials, \(\vec M\) is parallel to \(\vec H\) and the following relation holds:

    \[ \vec B=\mu_0\vec H+\mu_0\vec M. \]

    Energy transfer sign convention: in this problem, Work (\(W\)) and Heat (\(Q\)) are considered positive when they flow into the system, and negative when they flow out.

    T3-A [1.0 pts]. Work in the Pm-T

    Hint: in magnetic materials, \(\displaystyle\oint_C\vec H\cdot d\vec\ell=I_C\), where \(I_C\) is the net free current passing through the area bounded by the closed curve \(C\).

    T3-A1 [0.2 pts]. Let \(H\) be the magnitude of \(\vec H\) in the torus. Write \(H\) in terms of \(N\), \(A\), \(V\) and the instantaneous electric current \(I\) in the wire.

    T3-A2 [0.6 pts]. Let \(dW_{emf}\) be the work that the external voltage source performs to change the magnitude of \(\vec B\) by \(dB\). Write \(dW_{emf}\) in terms of \(V\), \(H\), and \(dB\).

    T3-A3 [0.2 pts]. The total work done by the voltage source, \(dW_{emf}\), can be divided in two parts: the work that would be performed to change the magnetic field if the toroid had a vacuum core, \(dW_{vac}\), and the work done on the paramagnetic material itself, \(dW\). Write \(dW\) in terms of \(\mu_0\), \(H\), \(V\) and \(dM\).

    T3-B [3.0 pts]. Heat and temperature in the Pm-T

    The following table compares two thermodynamic systems: the ideal gas and the Pm-T. Use this information and your answer to question T3-A3 to solve the following questions. This information will also be used in part C. If you did not find an answer for \(dW\) in question T3-A3, you may use \(dW=\alpha V\mu_0H\,dM\) where \(\alpha\) is a number. The volume \(V\) of the paramagnetic torus is constant, so that there is no work due to pressure. Below, \(T\) is the temperature in all instances.

    IDEAL GAS PARAMAGNETIC TORUS
    State functions: \(P,V\) and temperature \(T\) State functions: \(H,M\) and temperature \(T\)
    Constants: \(R,\gamma\) and number of moles \(n\) Constants: \(K,\lambda\) and number of moles \(n\)
    Equation of state: \(PV=nRT\) Equation of state: \(TMV=nKH\)
    Heat capacity at constant \(V\): \(C_V=nR/(\gamma-1)\) Heat capacity at constant \(M\): \(C_M=n\lambda/T^2\)
    Internal energy \(U\) in any process satisfies \(dU=C_V\,dT\) Internal energy \(U\) in any process satisfies \(dU=C_M\,dT\)

    \(K\) and \(\lambda\) are constants given by the material in the torus. You may use the equations provided in the table directly without proving them.

    T3-B1 [1.5 pts]. If the magnitude of \(\vec H\) changes from \(H_i\) to \(H_f\) at a constant temperature \(T\), an energy \(Q\) is transferred between the Pm-T and its environment. Write \(Q\) in terms of \(\mu_0\), \(n\), \(V\), \(K\), \(H_i\), \(H_f\), and \(T\).

    T3-B2 [1.5 pts]. If the magnitude of \(\vec H\) changes adiabatically from \(H_i\) to \(H_f\), the temperature of the Pm-T changes from \(T_i\) to \(T_f\). Write \(\Delta T=T_f-T_i\) in terms of \(\mu_0\), \(V\), \(n\), \(K\), \(\lambda\), \(H_i\), \(H_f\), and \(T_i\).

    T3-C [6.0 pts]. Carnot refrigerator of the Pm-T

    Figure 2

    Fig.3b.

    The \(H\) vs. \(T\) diagram of the Carnot refrigeration cycle \(1\to2\to3\to4\to1\) performed by the Pm-T is shown in figure 3b. In this cycle, let:

    • \(T_h\): temperature of the hot reservoir
    • \(T_c\): temperature of the cold reservoir
    • \(Q_h\): absolute value of the heat transferred to the hot reservoir
    • \(Q_c\): absolute value of the heat absorbed from the cold reservoir

    T3-C1 [0.2 pts]. Mark \(T_h\) and \(T_c\) on the \(T\) axis of the \(H\) vs. \(T\) diagram. Also label the processes in which the transfers of \(Q_h\) and \(Q_c\) occur, respectively.

    T3-C2 [1.5 pts]. Let \(M_1\), \(M_2\), \(M_3\), and \(M_4\) be the magnitudes of \(\vec M\) at the vertices of this cycle. Write \(M_1\) in terms of \(M_2\), \(M_3\), and \(M_4\).

    T3-C3 [0.8 pts]. Suppose that to cool 1.00 L of liquid helium initially at 1.00 K, we utilize a 2.0 moles Pm-T made of potassium chromate. For this material, \(K=1.87\times10^{-6}\ \mathrm{K\cdot m^3/mol}\), its density is \(2730\ \mathrm{kg/m^3}\) and its molar mass is \(0.19\ \mathrm{kg/mole}\). The Pm-T performs a Carnot refrigeration cycle with \(H_1=411624\ \mathrm{A/m}\), \(H_2=311306\ \mathrm{A/m}\), \(H_3=204618\ \mathrm{A/m}\) and \(H_4=240446\ \mathrm{A/m}\). After one operating cycle, calculate the final temperature of the liquid helium. Assume that for the liquid helium both the specific heat capacity \(c=100\ \mathrm{J/(kg\cdot K)}\) and the density \(\rho=130\ \mathrm{kg/m^3}\) remain constant.

    T3-C4 [2.0 pts]. In order to continuously lower the temperature of a body with constant heat capacity \(C_c\), Carnot cycles are allowed to occur over time in such a way that the power \(P\) transferred to the refrigerator remains constant. It is then assumed that the temperature \(T_h\) of the hot reservoir remains constant and that in each operating cycle the temperature \(T_c\) of the cooled body decreases by \(dT_c\), satisfying the relation \(dQ_c/dQ_h=T_c/T_h\). If at \(t=0\) we have \(T_c=T_0\), determine the time \(t\) that the Carnot refrigerator must operate for the cooled body to reach a temperature \(T<T_0\). Express your answer in terms of \(C_c\), \(T_h\), \(P\), \(T_0\) and \(T\).

    T3-C5 [1.5 pts]. The efficiency of a refrigerator is quantified by its coefficient of performance \(\mathrm{COP}=Q_c/W\). Determine the overall COP of the refrigerator of question T3-C4 with all the cycles performed until time \(t\). Write your answer in terms of \(T_0\) and \(T_h\) and \(T\).

    Physical Constants

    Reference values for selected physical constants.

    Constant Notation Value Units
    Speed of light in vacuum \(c\) \(2.99792458\times10^8\) \(\mathrm{m\cdot s^{-1}}\)
    Planck constant \(h\) \(4.135667696\ldots\times10^{-15}\) \(\mathrm{eV\cdot s}\)
    Reduced Planck constant \(\hbar=h/2\pi\) \(6.582119569\ldots\times10^{-16}\) \(\mathrm{eV\cdot s}\)
    Avogadro number \(N_A\) \(6.02214076\times10^{23}\) \(\mathrm{mol^{-1}}\)
    Boltzmann constant \(k_B\) \(8.617333262\times10^{-5}\) \(\mathrm{eV\cdot K^{-1}}\)
    Ideal gas constant \(R\) \(8.31446261815324\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot m^2\cdot s^{-2}\cdot mol^{-1}\cdot K^{-1}}\)
    Elementary charge \(e\) \(1.602176634\times10^{-19}\) \(\mathrm{A\cdot s}\)
    Universal gravitational constant \(G\) \(6.67430(15)\times10^{-11}\) \(\mathrm{m^3\cdot kg^{-1}\cdot s^{-2}}\)
    Stefan Boltzmann constant \(\sigma\) \(5.670374419\times10^{-8}\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot s^{-3}\cdot K^{-4}}\)
    Vacuum permeability \(\mu_0\) \(1.25663706127(20)\times10^{-6}\) \(\mathrm{kg\cdot m\cdot A^{-2}\cdot s^{-2}}\)
    Vacuum permittivity \(\varepsilon_0\) \(8.8541878188(14)\times10^{-12}\) \(\mathrm{A^2\cdot s^4\cdot kg^{-1}\cdot m^{-3}}\)
    Mass of the electron \(m_e\) \(5.1099895069(16)\times10^5\) \(\mathrm{eV}/c^2\)
    Mass of the proton \(m_p\) \(9.3827208943(29)\times10^8\) \(\mathrm{eV}/c^2\)
    Atomic mass units \(\mathrm{amu}\) \(9.3149410372(29)\times10^8\) \(\mathrm{eV}/c^2\)

    Official English text of the problem.