International Physics Olympiad

IPhO 2023

Tokyo, Japan · 3 theory problems with complete solutions

  1. Problem 1: Characterization of Soil Colloids

    Colloidal science is useful to characterize soil particles because many of them can be regarded as colloidal particles of micrometer size. For example, Brownian motion (random motion of colloidal particles) can be used to measure particle sizes.

    Part A. Motions of colloidal particles (1.6 points)

    We analyze the one-dimensional Brownian motion of a colloidal particle with mass \(M\). The equation of motion for its velocity \(v(t)\) reads:

    \[ M\dot v=-\gamma v(t)+F(t)+F_{\mathrm{ext}}(t), \tag{1} \]

    where \(\gamma\) is the friction coefficient, \(F(t)\) is a force due to random collisions with water molecules, and \(F_{\mathrm{ext}}(t)\) is an external force. In Part A, we assume \(F_{\mathrm{ext}}(t)=0\).

    A.1 — 0.8pt

    Consider that a water molecule collides with the particle at \(t=t_0\), giving impulse \(I_0\), and \(F(t)=0\) afterward. If \(v(t)=0\) before the collision, \(v(t)=v_0e^{-(t-t_0)/\tau}\) for \(t>t_0\). Determine \(v_0\) and \(\tau\), using \(I_0\) and necessary parameters in Eq.(1).

    In the following, you may use \(\tau\) in your answers.

    A.2 — 0.8pt

    Actually, water molecules collide with the particle one after another. Suppose the \(i\)th collision gives the impulse \(I_i\) at time \(t_i\) and determine \(v(t)\) on condition that \(t>0\) and \(v(0)=0\). Also give the inequality specifying the range of \(t_i\) that needs to be considered for a given \(t\). In the answer sheet, it is not necessary to specify this range in the expression for \(v(t)\).

    Part B. Effective equation of motion (1.8 points)

    Results so far imply that particle velocities \(v(t)\) and \(v(t')\) may be regarded as uncorrelated random quantities if \(|t-t'|\gg\tau\). On this basis, we introduce a theoretical model to approximately describe the one-dimensional Brownian motion, where the velocity changes randomly at each time interval \(\delta\) \((\gg\tau)\), i.e.,

    \[ v(t)=v_n\qquad(t_{n-1}<t\leq t_n), \tag{2} \]

    with \(t_n=n\delta\) \((n=0,1,2,\cdots)\) and a random quantity \(v_n\). It satisfies

    \[ \langle v_n\rangle=0,\qquad \langle v_nv_m\rangle= \begin{cases} C &(n=m),\\ 0 &(n\neq m), \end{cases} \tag{3} \]

    with a parameter \(C\) depending on \(\delta\). Here \(\langle X\rangle\) indicates the expectation value of \(X\). That is, if you draw random numbers \(X\) infinite times, the mean will be \(\langle X\rangle\).

    Now we consider the particle displacement \(\Delta x(t)=x(t)-x(0)\) for \(t=N\delta\) with an integer \(N\).

    B.1 — 1.0pt

    Determine \(\langle\Delta x(t)\rangle\) and \(\langle\Delta x(t)^2\rangle\) using \(C\), \(\delta\), and \(t\).

    B.2 — 0.8pt

    The quantity \(\langle\Delta x(t)^2\rangle\) is called the mean square displacement (MSD). It is a characteristic observable of the Brownian motion, which corresponds to the limiting case \(\delta\to0\). From this, we can show \(C\propto\delta^\alpha\) and \(\langle\Delta x(t)^2\rangle\propto t^\beta\). Determine the values of \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\).

    Part C. Electrophoresis (2.7 points)

    Here we discuss electrophoresis, i.e., transport of charged particles by an electric field. Suspension of colloidal particles with mass \(M\) and charge \(Q\) \((>0)\) is put in a narrow channel with a cross-section \(A\) (Fig.1(a)). We ignore the interaction between particles, effects of the wall, the fluid, the ions therein, and gravity.

    Figure 1

    Fig.1: Setting for Part C.

    By applying a uniform electric field \(E\) in the \(x\)-direction, particles are transported and their concentration \(n(x)\) (particle number per unit volume) becomes non-uniform (Fig.1(b)). When \(E\) is removed, this non-uniformity gradually disappears. This is due to Brownian motion of particles. If \(n(x)\) is not uniform, the numbers of right-going and left-going particles may differ (Fig.1(c)). This generates a particle flux \(J_D(x)\), the mean number of particles flowing at \(x\) along the \(x\)-axis per unit cross-sectional area and unit time. This flux is known to satisfy

    \[ J_D(x)=-D\frac{dn}{dx}(x), \tag{4} \]

    where \(D\) is called the diffusion coefficient.

    Now let's assume, for simplicity, that half of the particles have velocity \(+v\) and the other half have velocity \(-v\). Let \(N_+(x_0)\) be the number of particles with velocity \(+v\) that cross \(x_0\) from left to right per unit cross-sectional area and unit time. For particles with velocity \(+v\) to cross \(x_0\) in the time interval \(\delta\), they should be in the shaded region of Fig.1(c). Since \(\delta\) is small, we have \(n(x)\simeq n(x_0)+(x-x_0)\frac{dn}{dx}(x_0)\) in this region.

    C.1 — 0.5pt

    Express \(N_+(x_0)\) using necessary quantities from \(v\), \(\delta\), \(n(x_0)\), and \(\frac{dn}{dx}(x_0)\).

    We define \(N_-(x_0)\) as the counterpart of \(N_+(x_0)\) for the velocity \(-v\). With this, we have \(J_D(x_0)=\langle N_+(x_0)-N_-(x_0)\rangle\). According to Eq.(3), we have \(\langle v^2\rangle=C\).

    C.2 — 0.7pt

    Determine \(J_D(x_0)\) using necessary quantities from \(C\), \(\delta\), \(n(x_0)\), and \(\frac{dn}{dx}(x_0)\). Using this and Eq.(4), express \(D\) in terms of \(C\) and \(\delta\), and \(\langle\Delta x(t)^2\rangle\) in terms of \(D\) and \(t\).

    Now we discuss the effect of osmotic pressure \(\Pi\). It is given by \(\Pi=\frac{n}{N_A}RT=nkT\) with the Avogadro constant \(N_A\), the gas constant \(R\), temperature \(T\), and the Boltzmann constant \(k=\frac{R}{N_A}\). Let us consider the non-uniform concentration formed under the electric field \(E\) (Fig.1(b)). Since \(n(x)\) depends on \(x\), so does \(\Pi(x)\). Then the forces due to \(\Pi(x)\) and \(\Pi(x+\Delta x)\) must be balanced with the total force from the field \(E\) acting on the particles (Fig.2). Here we consider small \(\Delta x\), so that \(n(x)\) can be regarded as constant over this range, while \(n(x+\Delta x)-n(x)\simeq\Delta x\frac{dn}{dx}(x)\).

    Figure 2

    Fig.2: Force balance.

    C.3 — 0.5pt

    Express \(\frac{dn}{dx}(x)\) using \(n(x)\), \(T\), \(Q\), \(E\), and \(k\).

    Let us discuss the balance of the flux now. Besides the flux \(J_D(x)\) due to the Brownian motion, there is also a flux due to the electric field, \(J_Q(x)\). It is given by

    \[ J_Q(x)=n(x)u, \tag{5} \]

    where \(u\) is the terminal velocity of particles driven by the field.

    C.4 — 0.5pt

    To determine \(u\), we use Eq.(1) with \(F_{\mathrm{ext}}(t)=QE\). Since \(v(t)\) is fluctuating, we consider \(\langle v(t)\rangle\). Assuming \(\langle v(0)\rangle=0\) and using \(\langle F(t)\rangle=0\), evaluate \(\langle v(t)\rangle\) and obtain \(u=\lim_{t\to\infty}\langle v(t)\rangle\).

    C.5 — 0.5pt

    The flux balance reads \(J_D(x)+J_Q(x)=0\). Express the diffusion coefficient \(D\) in terms of \(k\), \(\gamma\), and \(T\).

    Part D. Mean square displacement (2.4 points)

    Suppose we observed the Brownian motion of an isolated, spherical colloidal particle with radius \(a=5.0\,\mu\mathrm{m}\) in water. Figure 3 shows the histogram of displacements \(\Delta x\) measured in the \(x\)-direction at every interval \(\Delta t=60\,\mathrm{s}\). The friction coefficient is given by \(\gamma=6\pi a\eta\) with water viscosity \(\eta=8.9\times10^{-4}\,\mathrm{Pa\cdot s}\) and the temperature was \(T=25\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\).

    Figure 3

    Fig.3: Histogram of displacements.

    \(\Delta x\;(\mu\mathrm{m})\) \(-10\) \(-9\) \(-8\) \(-7\) \(-6\) \(-5\) \(-4\)
    \(N_{\mathrm{count}}\) 0 0 0 2 4 11 15
    \(\Delta x\;(\mu\mathrm{m})\) \(-3\) \(-2\) \(-1\) \(0\) \(1\) \(2\) \(3\)
    \(N_{\mathrm{count}}\) 35 44 58 68 59 50 26
    \(\Delta x\;(\mu\mathrm{m})\) \(4\) \(5\) \(6\) \(7\) \(8\) \(9\) \(10\)
    \(N_{\mathrm{count}}\) 15 5 4 3 0 1 0

    D.1 — 1.0pt

    Estimate the value of \(N_A\) without using the fact that it is the Avogadro constant, up to two significant digits from the data in Fig.3. The gas constant is \(R=8.31\,\mathrm{J/K\cdot mol}\). Do not use the value of the Boltzmann constant \(k\) given in General Instructions. As for the Avogadro constant, you might obtain a value different from that in General Instructions.

    Now we extend the model in Part B to describe the motion of a particle with charge \(Q\) under an electric field \(E\). The particle velocity \(v(t)\) considered in Eq.(2) should be replaced by \(v(t)=u+v_n\) \((t_{n-1}<t\leq t_n)\) with \(v_n\) satisfying Eq. (3) and \(u\) being the terminal velocity considered in Eq.(5).

    D.2 — 0.8pt

    Express the MSD \(\langle\Delta x(t)^2\rangle\) in terms of \(u\), \(D\), and \(t\). Obtain approximate power laws for small \(t\) and large \(t\), as well as the characteristic time \(t_*\) where this change occurs. Draw a rough graph of MSD in a log-log plot, indicating the approximate location of \(t_*\).

    Next, we consider swimming microbes (Fig.4(a)), in one dimension for simplicity (Fig.4(b)). These are spherical particles with radius \(a\). They swim at velocity either \(+u_0\) or \(-u_0\), the sign chosen randomly at every time interval \(\delta_0\) without correlation. The observed motion is a combination of displacements due to swimming and those due to the Brownian motion of a spherical particle.

    Figure 4

    Fig.4: (a) Motion of microbes. (b) Its one-dimensional version.

    D.3 — 0.6pt

    Figure 5 displays the MSD \(\langle\Delta x(t)^2\rangle\) of those microbes, showing different power laws for small, large, and intermidiate \(t\), as indicated by dashed lines. Obtain the power law for each time range and express it using necessary quantities from \(D\), \(u_0\), \(\delta_0\), and \(t\).

    Figure 5

    Fig.5: Mean square displacement of the microbes.

    Part E. Water purification (1.5 points)

    Here we discuss the purification of water including colloid-like soil particles, by adding electrolytes to coagulate them. Particles interact through van der Waals force and electrostatic force, the latter including effects of both surface charges and the surrounding layer of oppositely charged ions (such ions and their layer are called counter-ions and the electric double layer, respectively; see Fig.6(a)). As a result, the interaction potential for particle distance \(d\) (Fig.6(b)) is given by

    \[ U(d)=-\frac{A}{d}+\frac{B\epsilon(kT)^2}{q^2}e^{-d/\lambda}, \tag{6} \]

    where \(A\) and \(B\) are positive constants, \(\epsilon\) is the dielectric constant of water, and \(\lambda\) is the thickness of the electric double layer. Assuming that charges of ions are \(\pm q\), we have

    \[ \lambda=\sqrt{\frac{\epsilon kT}{2N_Aq^2c}}, \tag{7} \]

    where \(c\) is the molar concentration of ion.

    Figure 6

    Fig.6: (a) Surface charges of colloidal particles and counter-ions. (b) Definition of the distance \(d\).

    E.1 — 1.5pt

    Addition of sodium chloride (NaCl) to the suspension causes colloidal particles to coagulate. Determine the lowest concentration \(c\) of NaCl necessary for coagulation. It is sufficient to consider two particles without thermal fluctuations, i.e., \(F(t)=0\) in Eq.(1), and assume that the terminal velocity for the given potential force is reached instantaneously.

    Official English text of the problem.

  2. Problem 2: Neutron Stars

    We discuss the stability of large nuclei and estimate the mass of neutron stars theoretically and experimentally.

    Part A. Mass and stability of nuclei (2.5 points)

    The rest-energy of a nucleus \(m(Z,N)c^2\) consisting of \(Z\) protons and \(N\) neutrons is smaller than the sum of rest-energies of protons and neutrons, hereafter called nucleons, by the binding energy \(B(Z,N)\), where \(c\) is the speed of light in vacuum. Ignoring minor corrections, we can approximate the binding energy consisting of the volume term with \(a_V\), the surface term with \(a_S\), the Coulomb energy term with \(a_C\), and the symmetry energy term with \(a_{\mathrm{sym}}\) in the following way.

    \[ m(Z,N)c^2=Am_Nc^2-B(Z,N),\qquad B(Z,N)=a_VA-a_SA^{2/3}-a_C\frac{Z^2}{A^{1/3}} -a_{\mathrm{sym}}\frac{(N-Z)^2}{A}, \tag{1} \]

    where \(A=Z+N\) is the mass number and \(m_N\) is the nucleon mass. In the calculation, use \(a_V\approx15.8\ \mathrm{MeV}\), \(a_S\approx17.8\ \mathrm{MeV}\), \(a_C\approx0.711\ \mathrm{MeV}\), and \(a_{\mathrm{sym}}\approx23.7\ \mathrm{MeV}\) (\(\mathrm{MeV}=10^6\) electron volts).

    A.1 — 0.9pt

    Under the condition of \(Z=N\), determine \(A\) for maximizing the binding energy per nucleon, \(B/A\).

    A.2 — 0.9pt

    Under the condition of fixed \(A\), the atomic number of the most stable nucleus \(Z^*\) is determined by maximizing \(B(Z,A-Z)\). For \(A=197\), calculate \(Z^*\) using Eq. (1).

    A.3 — 0.7pt

    A nucleus having large \(A\) breaks up into lighter nuclei through fission in order to minimize the total rest-mass energy. For simplicity, we consider one of multiple ways to break a nucleus with \((Z,N)\) into two equal nuclei, which occurs when the following energy relation holds,

    \[ m(Z,N)c^2>2m(Z/2,N/2)c^2. \]

    When this relation is written as

    \[ Z^2/A>C_{\mathrm{fission}}\frac{a_S}{a_C}, \]

    obtain \(C_{\mathrm{fission}}\) up to two significant digits.

    Part B. Neutron star as a gigantic nucleus (1.5 points)

    For large nuclei with a large enough mass number \(A>A_c\) with a threshold \(A_c\), these nuclei stay stable against nuclear fission because of the sufficiently large binding energy due to gravity.

    B.1 — 1.5pt

    We assume that \(N=A\) and \(Z=0\) is realized for sufficiently large \(A\) and Eq. (1) continues to hold with the addition of the gravitational binding energy. The binding energy due to gravity is

    \[ B_{\mathrm{grav}}=\frac35\frac{GM^2}{R}, \]

    where \(M=m_NA\) and \(R=R_0A^{1/3}\) with \(R_0\simeq1.1\times10^{-15}\ \mathrm{m}=1.1\ \mathrm{fm}\) are the mass and the radius of the nucleus, respectively.

    For \(B_{\mathrm{grav}}=a_{\mathrm{grav}}A^{5/3}\), obtain \(a_{\mathrm{grav}}\) in the MeV unit up to the first significant digit. Then, ignoring the surface term, estimate \(A_c\) up to the first significant digit. In the calculation, use \(m_Nc^2\simeq939\ \mathrm{MeV}\) and \(G=\hbar c/M_P^2\) where \(M_Pc^2\simeq1.22\times10^{22}\ \mathrm{MeV}\) and \(\hbar c\simeq197\ \mathrm{MeV}\cdot\mathrm{fm}\).

    Part C. Neutron star in a binary system (6.0 points)

    Some neutron stars are pulsars regularly emitting electromagnetic waves, which we call "light" for simplicity here, at a constant period. Neutron stars often make binary systems with a White Dwarf. Let us consider the star configuration shown in Fig. 1, where a light pulse from a neutron star N to the Earth E passes near a White Dwarf W of the binary system. Measuring these pulses influenced by the star's gravity leads to an accurate estimation of the mass of W as explained below, resulting in the estimation of the mass of N.

    Figure 1

    Fig. 1: Configurations with the \(x\)-axis along the line connecting N and E. (a) for \(x_N<0\) and (b) for \(x_N>0\).

    C.1 — 1.0pt

    As shown in the figure below, under the constant gravitational acceleration \(g\) we place two levels I and II with the height difference \(\Delta h(>0)\). Set the identical clocks at I, II, and \(F\), the free-falling system, denoted by clock-I, clock-II, and clock-\(F\), respectively.

    Figure 2

    Set-up of the thought experiment.

    We assume that an observer sits with clock-\(F\), and initially \(F\) is placed at the same height as that of clock-I and its velocity is zero. Since the clocks are identical, they register equal time intervals, \(\Delta\tau_F=\Delta\tau_{\mathrm{I}}\). Then, we let \(F\) fall freely, and work in the frame of \(F\), which is considered to be inertial. In this frame, clock-II passes by clock-\(F\) with velocity \(v\), so that the time dilation of clock-II can be determined by the Lorentz transformation. When time \(\Delta\tau_{\mathrm{I}}\) elapses on clock-\(F\), time \(\Delta\tau_{\mathrm{II}}\) elapses on clock-II.

    Determine \(\Delta\tau_{\mathrm{II}}\) in terms of \(\Delta\tau_{\mathrm{I}}\) up to the first order in \(\Delta\phi/c^2\), where \(\Delta\phi=g\Delta h\) is a difference of the gravitational potential, i.e., the gravitational potential energy per unit mass.

    C.2 — 1.8pt

    Under the gravitational potential \(\phi\), time delays change the effective speed of light, \(c_{\mathrm{eff}}\), observed at the infinity, though the local speed of light is \(c\). When \(\phi(r=\infty)=0\), \(c_{\mathrm{eff}}\) can be given up to the first order in \(\phi/c^2\) as

    \[ c_{\mathrm{eff}}\approx\left(1+\frac{2\phi}{c^2}\right)c \]

    including the effect of space distortion, which was not featured in C.1. We note that the light path can be approximated as a straight line.

    As shown in Fig. 1 (a), we take the \(x\)-axis along the light path from the neutron star N to the Earth E and place \(x=0\) at the point where the White Dwarf W is the closest to the light path. Let \(x_N(<0)\) be the \(x\)-coordinate of N, \(x_E(>0)\) be that of E, and \(d\) be the distance between W and the light path.

    Estimate the changes of the arrival time \(\Delta t\) of the light from N to E caused by the White Dwarf with mass \(M_{\mathrm{WD}}\) and evaluate the answer in a simple form disregarding higher order terms of the following small quantities: \(d/|x_N|\ll1\), \(d/x_E\ll1\), and \(GM_{\mathrm{WD}}/(c^2d)\ll1\). If necessary, use the following formula.

    \[ \int\frac{dx}{\sqrt{x^2+d^2}} =\frac12\log\left( \frac{\sqrt{x^2+d^2}+x}{\sqrt{x^2+d^2}-x} \right)+C. \]

    (\(\log\) is the natural logarithm)

    C.3 — 1.8pt

    As shown below, in a binary star system N and W are assumed to be moving in circular orbits with zero eccentricity around the center of mass \(G\) on the orbit plane. Let \(\varepsilon\) be the orbital inclination angle measured from the orbit plane to the line directed toward E from \(G\), and let \(L\) be the length between N and W and \(M_{\mathrm{WD}}\) be the mass of the White Dwarf. In the following, we assume \(\varepsilon\ll1\).

    Figure 3

    Binary star system.

    We observe light pulses from N on E far away from N. The light path to E varies with time depending on the configuration of N and W. The delay in the time interval of arriving pulses on E has the maximum value \(\Delta t_{\max}\) for \(x_N\simeq-L\) and the minimum value \(\Delta t_{\min}\) for \(x_N\simeq L\) (see Fig. 1 (b) for the configuration).

    Calculate \(\Delta t_{\max}-\Delta t_{\min}\) in a simple form disregarding higher order terms of small quantities as done in C.2. We note that the delays due to gravity from stellar objects other than W are assumed to cancel out in \(\Delta t_{\max}-\Delta t_{\min}\).

    C.4 — 0.8pt

    The below figure shows the observed time delays as a function of the orbital phase \(\varphi\) for the binary star system with \(L\approx6\times10^6\ \mathrm{km}\) and \(\cos\varepsilon\approx0.99989\). Estimate \(M_{\mathrm{WD}}\) in terms of the solar mass \(M_\odot\) and show the results for \(M_{\mathrm{WD}}/M_\odot\) up to the first significant digit. Here the approximate relation, \(GM_\odot/c^3\approx5\ \mu\mathrm{s}\), can be used.

    Figure 4

    Observed time delays \(\Delta t\) as a function of the orbital phase \(\varphi\) (see the figure in C.3) to locate N and W on the orbits.

    C.5 — 0.4pt

    In the binary system of neutron stars, two stars release energy and angular momentum by emitting gravitational waves and eventually collide to merge. For simplicity, let us consider only a circular motion with the radius \(R\) and the angular velocity \(\omega\) and then \(\omega=\chi R^p\) holds with the constant \(\chi\) depending on neither \(\omega\) nor \(R\) if relativistic effects are ignored. Determine the value for \(p\).

    C.6 — 0.2pt

    The amplitude of the emitted gravitational wave from the binary system in C.5 is proportional to \(R^2\omega^2\). Figure below qualitatively shows four different temporal profiles of the observed gravitational waves before the two-star collision. Select the most appropriate profile from (a) to (d).

    Figure 5

    Observed data profiles of gravitational waves.

    Official English text of the problem.

  3. Problem 3: Water and Objects

    In this problem, we consider the phenomena caused by the interaction between water and objects, related to surface tension. Part A treats motion, while Parts B and C are regarding static situations.

    If necessary, you can use the fact that if the function \(y(x)\) satisfies the differential equation \(y''(x)=ay(x)\) (\(a\) is a positive constant), then its general solution is \(y(x)=Ae^{\sqrt{a}x}+Be^{-\sqrt{a}x}\), where \(A\) and \(B\) are arbitrary constants.

    Part A. Merger of water drops (2.0 points)

    As shown in Fig.1, we consider two stationary, spherical water drops on the surface of a super-hydrophobic material, i.e., very strong repulsive force exists between material and water.

    Initially neighboring two identical spherical water drops are placed on the surface; then these two drops are merged after touching each other and form a larger spherical water drop, which suddenly jumps up.

    A.1 2.0pt

    The radius \(a\) of both water drops before the merger is \(100\,\mu\mathrm{m}\). The density of water \(\rho\) is \(1.00\times10^3\,\mathrm{kg/m^3}\). The surface tension \(\gamma\) is \(7.27\times10^{-2}\,\mathrm{J/m^2}\).

    A portion \(k\) of the difference of the surface energy before and after the merger, \(\Delta E\), is transformed into the kinetic energy of the jumped water drop. Then, determine the initial jump-up velocity, \(v\), of the merged water drop in two significant digits under the following assumptions:

    • \(k=0.06\)
    • Before and after merger, the total volume of water is conserved.
    Figure 1

    Fig. 1: Merger of two water drops and jump of the merged water drop.

    Part B. A vertically placed board (4.5 points)

    A flat board is immersed vertically in water. Figures 2(a) and 2(b) respectively show water surface forms for the hydrophilic (attractive) and hydrophobic board materials. We neglect the thickness of the board.

    The board surface is on the \(yz\) plane, and the horizontal water surface far away from the board is on the \(xy\) plane with \(z=0\). The surface shape does not depend on the \(y\)-coordinate. Let \(\theta(x)\) be the angle between the water surface and the horizontal plane at a point \((x,z)\) on the water surface in the \(xz\) plane. Here \(\theta(x)\) is measured with respect to the positive \(x\) axis and the counterclockwise rotation is taken as positive. Let \(\theta(x)\) be \(\theta_0\) at the point of contact between the board and the water surface \((x=0)\). In the following, \(\theta_0\) is fixed by the properties of the board material.

    Water density \(\rho\) is constant and water surface tension \(\gamma\) is uniform. The gravitational acceleration constant is given by \(g\). The atmospheric pressure, \(P_0\), is assumed to be always uniform. Let us determine the water surface form in the following steps. Note that the unit of surface tension is \(\mathrm{J/m^2}\) as well as \(\mathrm{N/m}\).

    Figure 2

    Fig. 2: Boards vertically immersed in the water. (a) hydrophilic board case; (b) hydrophobic board case.

    B.1 0.6pt

    We consider a hydrophilic board case, as shown in Fig.2(a). We note that the water pressure, \(P\), satisfies the conditions \(P<P_0\) for \(z>0\) and \(P=P_0\) for \(z=0\). Then, express \(P\) at \(z\) in terms of \(\rho\), \(g\), \(z\), and \(P_0\).

    B.2 0.8pt

    We consider a water block whose cutout is shown as shaded in Fig.3(a). Its \(xz\) plane cross-section is shown in a hatched area in Fig.3(b). Let \(z_1\) and \(z_2\) respectively be the left and right edge coordinates of the boundary (water surface) between the water block and the air.

    Obtain a horizontal component (\(x\) component) of the net force per unit length along the \(y\)-axis, \(f_x\), which is exerted on the water block due to the pressure, in terms of \(\rho\), \(g\), \(z_1\), and \(z_2\). Note that \(P_0\) results in no net horizontal force on the water block.

    Figure 3

    Fig. 3: Cutout form of water block on the water surface. (a) Bird's eye view and (b) cross-sectional view.

    B.3 0.8pt

    Surface tension acting on the water block is balanced with the force \(f_x\) discussed in B.2. We respectively define \(\theta_1\) and \(\theta_2\) as the angles between the water surface and the horizontal plane at the left and right edges. Express \(f_x\) in terms of \(\gamma\), \(\theta_1\), and \(\theta_2\).

    B.4 0.8pt

    The following equation holds at an arbitrary point \((x,z)\) on the water surface,

    \[ \frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{z}{\ell}\right)^a+\cos\theta(x) =\text{constant}. \tag{1} \]

    Determine the exponent \(a\) and express the constant \(\ell\) in terms of \(\gamma\) and \(\rho\). Note that this equation holds regardless of hydrophilic or hydrophobic board materials.

    B.5 1.5pt

    In Eq. (1) in B.4, we assume that variation of the water surface is slow, i.e., \(\lvert z'(x)\rvert\ll1\), so that we can expand \(\cos\theta(x)\) with respect to \(z'(x)\) up to the second order. Then, differentiating the resultant equation with respect to \(x\), we obtain the differential equation satisfied by \(z(x)\). Solve this differential equation and determine \(z(x)\) for \(x\geq0\) in terms of \(\tan\theta_0\) and \(\ell\). Note that the vertical directions of Figs. 2 and 3 are exaggerated for better view and they do not satisfy the condition, \(\lvert z'(x)\rvert\ll1\).

    Part C. Interaction between two rods (3.5 points)

    The identical rods A and B made of the same material floating in parallel on the water surface are placed at the same distance away from the \(y\)-axis (Fig.4).

    Figure 4

    Fig. 4: Two rods A and B floating on the water surface.

    C.1 1.0pt

    At the contact points of the rod B and the water surface, we define the \(z\)-coordinates \(z_a\) and \(z_b\), and the angles \(\theta_a\) and \(\theta_b\), as shown in Fig.5. Determine the horizontal force component, \(F_x\), on the rod B per unit length along the \(y\)-axis in terms of \(\theta_a\), \(\theta_b\), \(z_a\), \(z_b\), \(\rho\), \(g\), and \(\gamma\).

    Figure 5

    Fig. 5: Vertical cross-sectional view of two rods floating on the water surface.

    C.2 1.5pt

    We define the \(z\)-coordinate of the water surface, \(z_0\), at the midpoint of two rods in the \(xz\) plane. Express the force \(F_x\) obtained in C.1 without using \(\theta_a\), \(\theta_b\), \(z_a\), and \(z_b\).

    C.3 1.0pt

    Let \(x_a\) be the \(x\)-coordinate of the contact point between the water surface and the left side of the rod B. Using the differential equation obtained in B.5, express the water level coordinate \(z_0\) of the midpoint of these two rods A and B in terms of \(x_a\) and \(z_a\). You can use the constant \(\ell\) introduced in B.4.

    Official English text of the problem.