International Physics Olympiad

IPhO 2018

Lisbon, Portugal · 3 theory problems with complete solutions

  1. Problem 1: LIGO-GW150914

    In 2015, the gravitational-wave observatory LIGO detected, for the first time, the passing of gravitational waves (GW) through Earth. This event, named GW150914, was triggered by waves produced by two black holes that were orbiting on quasi-circular orbits. This problem will make you estimate some physical parameters of the system, from the properties of the detected signal.

    Part A: Newtonian (conservative) orbits (3.0 points)

    A.1 1.0pt

    Consider a system of two stars with masses \(M_1,M_2\), at locations \(\vec r_1,\vec r_2\), respectively, with respect to the center-of-mass of the system, that is,

    \[ M_1\vec r_1+M_2\vec r_2=0\,. \tag{1} \]

    The stars are isolated from the rest of the Universe and moving at non-relativistic velocities. Using Newton's laws, the acceleration vector of mass \(M_1\) can be expressed as

    \[ \frac{d^2\vec r_1}{dt^2} =-\alpha\frac{\vec r_1}{r_1^n}\,, \tag{2} \]

    where \(r_1=|\vec r_1|,r_2=|\vec r_2|\). Find \(n\in\mathbb N\) and \(\alpha=\alpha(G,M_1,M_2)\), where \(G\) is Newton's constant \([G\simeq6.67\times10^{-11}\,\mathrm{N\,m^2\,kg^{-2}}]\).

    A.2 1.0pt

    The total energy of the 2-mass system, in circular orbits, can be expressed as:

    \[ E=A(\mu,\Omega,L)-G\frac{M\mu}{L}\,, \tag{3} \]

    where

    \[ \mu\equiv\frac{M_1M_2}{M_1+M_2}\,, \qquad M\equiv M_1+M_2\,, \tag{4} \]

    are the reduced mass and total mass of the system, \(\Omega\) is the angular velocity of each mass and \(L\) is the total separation \(L=r_1+r_2\). Obtain the explicit form of the term \(A(\mu,\Omega,L)\).

    A.3 1.0pt

    Equation 3 can be simplified to \(E=\beta G\frac{M\mu}{L}\). Determine the number \(\beta\).

    Part B: Introducing relativistic dissipation (7.0 points)

    The correct theory of gravity, General Relativity, was formulated by Einstein in 1915, and predicts that gravity travels with the speed of light. The messengers carrying information about the interaction are called GWs. GWs are emitted whenever masses are accelerated, making the system of masses lose energy.

    Consider a system of two point-like particles, isolated from the rest of the Universe. Einstein proved that for small enough velocities the emitted GWs: 1) have a frequency which is twice as large as the orbital frequency; 2) can be characterized by a luminosity, i.e. emitted power \(\mathcal P\), which is dominated by Einstein's quadrupole formula,

    \[ \mathcal P=\frac{G}{5c^5} \sum_{i=1}^{3}\sum_{j=1}^{3} \left(\frac{d^3Q_{ij}}{dt^3}\right) \left(\frac{d^3Q_{ij}}{dt^3}\right)\,. \tag{5} \]

    Here, \(c\) is the velocity of light \(c\simeq3\times10^8\,\mathrm{m/s}\). For a system of 2 pointlike particles orbiting on the \(x-y\) plane, \(Q_{ij}\) is the following table (\(i,j\) label the row/column number)

    \[ \begin{aligned} Q_{11}&=\sum_{A=1}^{2}\frac{M_A}{3}(2x_A^2-y_A^2)\,,\\ Q_{22}&=\sum_{A=1}^{2}\frac{M_A}{3}(2y_A^2-x_A^2)\,,\\ Q_{33}&=-\sum_{A=1}^{2}\frac{M_A}{3}(x_A^2+y_A^2)\,, \end{aligned} \tag{6} \]

    \[ Q_{12}=Q_{21}=\sum_{A=1}^{2}M_Ax_Ay_A\,, \tag{7} \]

    and \(Q_{ij}=0\) for all other possibilities. Here, \((x_A,y_A)\) is the position of mass A in the center-of-mass frame.

    B.1 1.0pt

    For the circular orbits described in A.2 the components of \(Q_{ij}\) can be expressed as a function of time \(t\) as:

    \[ Q_{ii}=\frac{\mu L^2}{2}(a_i+b_i\cos kt)\,, \qquad Q_{ij}\overset{i\ne j}{=}\frac{\mu L^2}{2}c_{ij}\sin kt\,. \tag{8} \]

    Determine \(k\) in terms of \(\Omega\) and the numerical values of the constants \(a_i,b_i,c_{ij}\).

    B.2 1.0pt

    Compute the power \(\mathcal P\) emitted in gravitational waves for that system, and obtain:

    \[ \mathcal P=\xi\frac{G}{c^5}\mu^2L^4\Omega^6\,. \tag{9} \]

    What is the number \(\xi\)? [If you could not obtain \(\xi\), use \(\xi=6.4\) in the following.]

    B.3 1.0pt

    In the absence of GW emission the two masses will orbit on a fixed circular orbit indefinitely. However, the emission of GWs causes the system to lose energy and to slowly evolve towards smaller circular orbits. Obtain that the rate of change \(\frac{d\Omega}{dt}\) of the orbital angular velocity takes the form

    \[ \left(\frac{d\Omega}{dt}\right)^3 =(3\xi)^3\frac{\Omega^{11}}{c^{15}}(GM_c)^5\,, \tag{10} \]

    where \(M_c\) is called the chirp mass. Obtain \(M_c\) as a function of \(M\) and \(\mu\). This mass determines the increase in frequency during the orbital decay. [The name "chirp" is inspired by the high pitch sound (increasing frequency) produced by small birds.]

    B.4 2.0pt

    Using the information provided above, relate the orbital angular velocity \(\Omega\) with the GW frequency \(f_{\mathrm{GW}}\). Knowing that, for any smooth function \(F(t)\) and \(a\ne1\),

    \[ \frac{dF(t)}{dt}=\chi F(t)^a \quad\Rightarrow\quad F(t)^{1-a}=\chi(1-a)(t-t_0)\,, \tag{11} \]

    where \(\chi\) is a constant and \(t_0\) is an integration constant, show that (10) implies that the GW frequency is

    \[ f_{\mathrm{GW}}^{-8/3} =8\pi^{8/3}\xi \left(\frac{GM_c}{c^3}\right)^{(2/3)+p} (t_0-t)^{2-p} \tag{12} \]

    and determine the constant \(p\).

    On September 14, 2015 GW150914 was registered by the LIGO detectors, consisting of two L-shaped arms, each 4 km long. These arms changed by a relative length according to Fig. 1. The arms of the detector respond linearly to a passing gravitational wave, and the response pattern mimics the wave. This wave was created by two black holes on quasi-circular orbits; the loss of energy through gravitational radiation caused the orbit to shrink and the black holes to eventually collide. The collision point corresponds, roughly, to the peak of the signal after point D, in Fig. 1.

    Figure 1

    Figure 1. Strain, i.e. relative variation of the size of each arm, at the LIGO detector H1. The horizontal axis is time, and the points A, B, C, D correspond to \(t=0.000,0.009,0.034,0.040\) seconds, respectively.

    B.5 1.0pt

    From the figure, estimate \(f_{\mathrm{GW}}(t)\) at

    \[ t_{\overline{\mathrm{AB}}}=\frac{t_{\mathrm B}+t_{\mathrm A}}{2} \qquad\text{and}\qquad t_{\overline{\mathrm{CD}}}=\frac{t_{\mathrm D}+t_{\mathrm C}}{2}\,. \tag{13} \]

    Assuming that (12) is valid all the way until the collision (which strictly speaking is not true) and that the two objects have equal mass, estimate the chirp mass, \(M_c\), and total mass of the system, in terms of solar masses \(M_\odot\simeq2\times10^{30}\,\mathrm{kg}\).

    B.6 1.0pt

    Estimate the minimal orbital separation between the two objects at \(t_{\overline{\mathrm{CD}}}\). Hence estimate a maximum size for each object, \(R_{\max}\). Obtain \(R_\odot/R_{\max}\) to compare this size with the radius of our Sun, \(R_\odot\simeq7\times10^5\,\mathrm{km}\). Estimate also their orbital linear velocity at the same instant, \(v_{\mathrm{col}}\), comparing it with the speed of light, \(v_{\mathrm{col}}/c\).

    Conclude that these are extremely fast moving, extremely compact objects indeed!

    Official English text of the problem.

  2. Problem 2: Where is the neutrino?

    When two protons collide with a very high energy at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), several particles may be produced as a result of that collision, such as electrons, muons, neutrinos, quarks, and their respective anti-particles. Most of these particles can be detected by the particle detector surrounding the collision point. For example, quarks undergo a process called hadronisation in which they become a shower of subatomic particles, called "jet". In addition, the high magnetic field present in the detectors allows even very energetic charged particles to curve enough for their momentum to be determined. The ATLAS detector uses a superconducting solenoid system that produces a constant and uniform 2.00 Tesla magnetic field in the inner part of the detector, surrounding the collision point. Charged particles with momenta below a certain value will be curved so strongly that they will loop repeatedly in the field and most likely not be measured. Due to its nature, the neutrino is not detected at all, as it escapes through the detector without interacting.

    Data: Electron rest mass, \(m=9.11\times10^{-31}\ \mathrm{kg}\); Elementary charge, \(e=1.60\times10^{-19}\ \mathrm{C}\);

    Speed of light, \(c=3.00\times10^8\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\); Vacuum permittivity, \(\epsilon_0=8.85\times10^{-12}\ \mathrm{F\,m^{-1}}\)

    Part A. ATLAS Detector physics (4.0 points)

    A.1 — 0.5pt

    Derive an expression for the cyclotron radius, \(r\), of the circular trajectory of an electron acted upon by a magnetic force perpendicular to its velocity, and express that radius as a function of its kinetic energy, \(K\); charge modulus, \(e\); mass, \(m\); and magnetic field, \(B\). Assume that the electron is a non-relativistic classical particle.

    Electrons produced inside the ATLAS detector must be treated relativistically. However, the formula for the cyclotron radius also holds for relativistic motion when the relativistic momentum is considered.

    A.2 — 0.5pt

    Calculate the minimum value of the momentum of an electron that allows it to escape the inner part of the detector in the radial direction. The inner part of the detector has a cylindrical shape with a radius of 1.1 meters, and the electron is produced in the collision point exactly in the center of the cylinder. Express your answer in MeV/\(c\).

    When accelerated perpendicularly to the velocity, relativistic particles of charge \(e\) and rest mass \(m\) emitt electromagnetic radiation, called synchrotron radiation. The emitted power is given by

    \[ P=\frac{e^2a^2\gamma^4}{6\pi\epsilon_0c^3} \]

    where \(a\) is the acceleration and \(\gamma=[1-(v/c)^2]^{-1/2}\).

    A.3 — 1.0pt

    A particle is called ultrarelativistic when its speed is very close to the speed of light. For an ultrarelativistic particle the emitted power can be expressed as:

    \[ P=\xi\frac{e^4}{\epsilon_0m^kc^n}E^2B^2, \]

    where \(\xi\) is a real number, \(n\), \(k\) are integers, \(E\) is the energy of the charged particle and \(B\) is the magnetic field. Find \(\xi\), \(n\) and \(k\).

    A.4 — 1.0pt

    In the ultrarelativistic limit, the energy of the electron as a function of time is:

    \[ E(t)=\frac{E_0}{1+\alpha E_0t}, \]

    where \(E_0\) is the initial energy of the electron. Find \(\alpha\) as a function of \(e\), \(c\), \(B\), \(\epsilon_0\) and \(m\).

    A.5 — 0.5pt

    Consider an electron produced at the collision point along the radial direction with an energy of 100 GeV. Estimate the amount of energy that is lost due to synchrotron radiation until the electron escapes the inner part of the detector? Express your answer in MeV.

    A.6 — 0.5pt

    Find an expression for the cyclotron frequency of the electron as a function of time in the ultrarelativistic limit.

    Part B. Finding the neutrino (6.0 points)

    The collision between the two protons shown in Figure 1 leads to the production of a top quark (\(t\)) and an anti-top quark (\(\bar t\)), the heaviest elementary particles ever detected. The top quark decays into a \(W^+\) boson and a bottom quark (\(b\)), while the anti-top quark decays into a \(W^-\) boson and an anti-bottom quark (\(\bar b\)). In the case depicted in Figure 1, the \(W^+\) boson decays into a anti-muon (\(\mu^+\)) and a neutrino (\(\nu\)), and the \(W^-\) boson decays into a quark and an anti-quark. The task of this problem is to reconstruct the full momentum of the neutrino using the momenta of some detected particles. For simplicity, all particles and jets in this problem will be considered massless, except for the top quark and \(W^\pm\) bosons.

    The momenta of the top quark decay products can be determined from the experiment (see Table), except for the neutrino momentum component along the (\(z\)-axis). The total linear momentum of the final state particles caught by the detector is only zero on the transverse plane (\(xy\) plane), and not along the collision line (\(z\)-axis). As such, one can find the transverse momentum of the neutrino from the missing momentum in the transverse plane.

    On June 4, 2015, the ATLAS experiment at the LHC recorded a proton-proton collision at 00:21:24 GMT+1 like the one represented in Figure 1.

    Figure 1

    Figure 1. Schematic representation of the ATLAS detector coordinate system (left) and proton-proton collision (right).

    The linear momenta of the three final-state particles coming from the top quark decay, including the neutrino, is presented below for each component.

    Particle \(p_x\) (GeV/\(c\)) \(p_y\) (GeV/\(c\)) \(p_z\) (GeV/\(c\))
    anti-muon (\(\mu^+\)) \(-24.7\) \(-24.9\) \(-12.4\)
    jet 1 (\(j_1\)) \(-14.2\) \(+50.1\) \(+94.1\)
    neutrino (\(\nu\)) \(-104.1\) \(+5.3\) ---

    B.1 — 1.5pt

    Find an equation which relates the square of the \(W^+\) boson mass, \(m_{\mathrm W}^2\), with the neutrino and anti-muon momentum components presented in the table above. Express your answer in terms of the neutrino and anti-muon transverse momentum,

    \[ \vec p_{\mathrm T}^{(\nu)} =p_x^{(\nu)}\hat\imath+p_y^{(\nu)}\hat\jmath \quad\text{and}\quad \vec p_{\mathrm T}^{(\mu)} =p_x^{(\mu)}\hat\imath+p_y^{(\mu)}\hat\jmath, \]

    and their \(z\)-axis momentum components, \(p_z^{(\mu)}\) and \(p_z^{(\nu)}\).

    B.2 — 1.5pt

    Assuming a \(W^+\) boson mass of \(m_{\mathrm W}=80.4\ \mathrm{GeV}/c^2\) calculate the two possible solutions for the neutrino momentum along the \(z\)-axis, \(p_z^{(\nu)}\). Express your answer in GeV/c.

    B.3 — 1.0pt

    Calculate the top quark mass for each one of the two previous solutions. Express your answer in GeV/\(c^2\).

    [If you did not obtain the two solutions in B.2, use \(p_z^{(\nu)}=70\ \mathrm{GeV}/c\) and \(p_z^{(\nu)}=-180\ \mathrm{GeV}/c\).]

    The normalised number of collision events for the measurement of the top quark mass (as determined from the experiment), has two components: the so-called "signal" (corresponding to the decay of top quarks) and "background" (corresponding to events from other processes that do not include top quarks). Experimental data include both processes, see Fig. 2.

    Figure 2

    Figure 2. Top quark mass distribution as determined from the experiment, i.e. the normalised number of events plotted against the top quark mass. The dots correspond to the data. The dashed line corresponds to the "signal" and the shade to the "background".

    B.4 — 1.0pt

    According to the top quark mass distribution, which one of the two previous solutions is more likely to be the right one? Estimate the probability for the most likely solution.

    B.5 — 1.0pt

    Calculate the distance traveled by the top quark before decaying, using the most likely solution. Assume the top quark has a mean lifetime at rest of \(5\times10^{-25}\ \mathrm{s}\).

    Official English text of the problem.

  3. Problem 3: Physics of Live Systems

    Data: Normal atmospheric pressure, \(P_0 = 1.013 \times 10^5\ \mathrm{Pa} = 760\ \mathrm{mmHg}\)

    Part A. The physics of blood flow (4.5 points)

    In this part you will analyse two simplified models of blood flow in vessels.

    Blood vessels are approximately cylindrical in shape, and it is known that for a steady, non turbulent flow of an incompressible fluid in a rigid cylinder, the difference in pressure of the fluid at the two ends of the cylinder is given by

    \[ \Delta P=\frac{8\ell\eta}{\pi r^4}Q, \tag{1} \]

    where \(\ell\) and \(r\) are the length and radius of the cylinder, \(\eta\) is the fluid viscosity and \(Q\) is the volumetric flow rate, i.e. the fluid volume that passes the cylinder cross section per unit time. This expression is often able to provide the correct order of magnitude for the pressure difference in a vessel, even without taking into account the pulsatile flow, the vessel's compressibility and irregular shape, and the fact that blood is not a simple fluid but a mixture of cells and plasma. Moreover, this expression has the same form as Ohm's law, with the volumetric flow rate being interpreted as a current, the difference in pressure as a voltage, and the factor \(R=\frac{8\ell\eta}{\pi r^4}\) as a resistance.

    Consider for example the symmetrical network of arterioles (small arteries) depicted in Figure 1 that delivers blood to the capillary bed of a tissue. In this network, at each bifurcation a vessel is divided in two identical vessels. However, the vessels of higher levels are thinner and shorter: consider that the radii and lengths of vessels in two consecutive levels, \(i\) and \(i+1\), are related by \(r_{i+1}=r_i/2^{1/3}\) and by \(\ell_{i+1}=\ell_i/2^{1/3}\).

    Figure 1

    Figure 1. Network of arterioles.

    A.1 (1.3pt)

    Obtain an expression for the volumetric flow rate, \(Q_i\), in a vessel at any level \(i\), as a function of the total number of levels \(N\), of the viscosity \(\eta\), of the radius \(r_0\) and length \(\ell_0\) of the first vessel, and of the difference \(\Delta P=P_0-P_{\mathrm{cap}}\) between the pressure at the arteriole at level 0, \(P_0\), and the pressure at the capillary bed, \(P_{\mathrm{cap}}\).

    A.2 (0.5pt)

    Calculate the numerical value of the volumetric flow rate \(Q_0\) of the arteriole at level 0, if its radius is \(6.0\times10^{-5}\ \mathrm{m}\) and its length is \(2.0\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{m}\). Consider that the pressure at the arteriole inlet is 55 mmHg and the vessel network has \(N=6\) levels linking this arteriole to the capillary bed at the pressure 30 mmHg. Consider that the blood viscosity is \(\eta=3.5\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{kg\,m^{-1}\,s^{-1}}\). Express your result in ml/h.

    A blood vessel as an LCR circuit

    The approximation of rigid cylindrical vessels falls short for several reasons. It is particularly important to include the time dependent flow and to take into account the change in vessel diameter that occurs when the pressure varies during a blood pumping cycle done by the heart. Moreover, it is observed that in the larger vessels the blood pressure varies significantly during a cycle, while in the smaller vessels the amplitude of the oscillations in pressure is much smaller, and the flow is almost time independent.

    When the pressure increases in a single elastic vessel, there will be an increase in its diameter, thus permitting to store more fluid in the vessel, and to deliver it when the pressure drops. For this reason, the elastic behaviour of the vessel can be simulated by adding a capacitor to our initial description. Moreover, when taking into account the time dependent blood flow rate, one has to consider the inertia of the fluid, proportional to its density \(\rho=1.05\times10^3\ \mathrm{kg\,m^{-3}}\). This inertia can be described by an inductance in our model. In Figure 2 we represent the equivalent circuit for a single vessel in this model. The equivalent capacitance and inductance are given by

    \[ C=\frac{3\ell\pi r^3}{2Eh} \quad\text{and}\quad L=\frac{9\ell\rho}{4\pi r^2}, \tag{2} \]

    respectively, where \(h\) is the width of the vessel wall and \(E\) is the artery Young's modulus, a coefficient that describes the alteration in size of the vessel tissue when a force is applied. The Young's modulus has units of pressure and is on the order of \(E=0.06\ \mathrm{MPa}\) for arterioles.

    Figure 2

    Figure 2. Equivalent electric circuit for a single vessel.

    A.3 (2.0pt)

    Obtain, in the stationary regime, the pressure amplitude at the vessel outlet, \(P_{\mathrm{out}}\), as a function of the pressure amplitude at the inlet, \(P_{\mathrm{in}}\), the equivalent resistance, \(R\), inductance, \(L\) and capacitance, \(C\), for a flow with angular frequency \(\omega\). Establish the condition between \(\eta\), \(\rho\), \(E\), \(h\), \(r\) and \(\ell\) so that, for low frequencies, the pressure oscillation amplitude at the outlet is smaller than that of \(P_{\mathrm{in}}\).

    A.4 (0.7pt)

    For the vessel network in A.2 estimate the maximum arteriole wall thickness \(h\) so that the condition established in A.3 is satisfied (consider that \(h\) is level independent).

    Part B. Tumour growth (5.5 points)

    Tumour growth is a very complex process where biological mechanisms such as cell proliferation and natural selection are intertwined with physics. In this problem we will consider a simplified model of tumour growth that addresses the increase in pressure commonly observed in solid tumors.

    Consider a group of normal cells forming a tissue surrounded by an inextensible basement membrane, which forces the tissue to maintain always the same form: a sphere of radius \(R\) (Figure 3).

    Figure 3

    Figure 3. Simplified tumour.

    Initially the tissue does not have residual stresses, i.e. the pressure at every point is equal to the atmospheric pressure.

    At time \(t=0\), a tumour starts growing at the centre of this sphere and, as it grows, the pressure inside the tissue increases. Consider that both tissues (normal, N, and tumour, T) are compressible such that their densities, \(\rho_{\mathrm N}\) and \(\rho_{\mathrm T}\), increase linearly with pressure:

    \[ \rho_{\mathrm N}=\rho_0\left(1+\frac{p}{K_{\mathrm N}}\right), \qquad \rho_{\mathrm T}=\rho_0\left(1+\frac{p}{K_{\mathrm T}}\right), \tag{3} \]

    where \(\rho_0\) is the rest tissue density, \(p\) is the pressure difference to the atmospheric pressure and \(K_{\mathrm N}\), \(K_{\mathrm T}\) are the compressibility moduli (bulk moduli) of the normal and tumour tissues, respectively. In general, tumours are stiffer and so they have a higher bulk modulus.

    B.1 (1.0pt)

    The mass of normal cells is not altered while the tumour is growing. Obtain the ratio between the tumour volume and the total tissue volume, \(v=V_{\mathrm T}/V\), as a function of the ratio between the tumour mass (\(M_{\mathrm T}\)) and the normal tissue mass (\(M_{\mathrm N}\)), \(\mu=M_{\mathrm T}/M_{\mathrm N}\) and the ratio of the bulk moduli, \(\kappa=K_{\mathrm N}/K_{\mathrm T}\).

    Hyperthermia is sometimes used together with chemotherapy and radiotherapy in the treatment of cancer. In hyperthermia the cancer cells are selectively heated from the normal human body temperature, \(37\,^\circ\mathrm C\), to temperatures above \(43\,^\circ\mathrm C\), inducing their death. Researchers are currently developing carbon nanotubes covered with special proteins capable of binding to tumour cells. When the tissue is irradiated with near-infrared radiation, the nanotubes absorb it in a much greater extent than the surrounding tissues and therefore can be selectively heated as well as the tumour cells to which they are attached.

    Consider that the tumour, the normal cells and the surrounding tissue have a constant thermal conductivity \(k\), i.e. in the geometry of this problem, the energy that crosses a spherical surface of radius \(r\) per unit time and per unit area is equal to \(k\) times the derivative of the temperature with respect to \(r\). The nanotubes are uniformly distributed in the tumour volume and are able to deliver a power \(\mathcal P\) of thermal energy per unit volume. Assume that the temperature is equal to the normal human body temperature very far away from the tumour.

    B.2 (1.7pt)

    Obtain, for the stationary state, the temperature at the centre of the tumour as a function of \(\mathcal P\), \(k\), the human body temperature and the tumour radius, \(R_{\mathrm T}\).

    B.3 (0.5pt)

    Obtain the minimum power per unit volume, \(\mathcal P_{\min}\), needed to heat up all tumour cells in a tumour with 5.0 cm radius to a temperature larger than \(43.0\,^\circ\mathrm C\). Take the thermal conductivity of the tissue to be equal to \(k=0.60\ \mathrm{W\,K^{-1}\,m^{-1}}\).

    Consider that the tumour is irrigated by a vessel network with a branched structure like in question A.1. As the tumour grows, when its pressure \(p\) becomes larger than the pressure \(P_{\mathrm{cap}}\) at the thinnest vessels, the radii of these vessels will decrease by a small amount \(\delta r\). If this pressure reaches a critical value \(p_c\) (which would correspond to a radius decrease of \(\delta r_c\)), the thinnest vessels would collapse, compromising seriously the irrigation to the tumour. The pressure and the radius change can be related by the following phenomenological relation:

    \[ \frac{p}{P_{\mathrm{cap}}}-1 = \left(\frac{p_c}{P_{\mathrm{cap}}}-1\right) \left(2-\frac{\delta r}{\delta r_c}\right) \frac{\delta r}{\delta r_c}. \tag{4} \]

    Consider that just the smallest vessels (of level \(N-1\)) have their radius altered when the tumour increases its pressure.

    B.4 (2.3pt)

    In the linear regime (i.e. consider that \(p-P_{\mathrm{cap}}\) is very small), express the relative drop in the flow rate, \(\frac{\delta Q_{N-1}}{Q_{N-1}}\), in these thinnest vessels, as a function of the tumour volume ratio \(v=V_{\mathrm T}/V\) and \(K_{\mathrm N}\), \(N\), \(p_c\), \(\delta r_c\), \(r_{N-1}\), \(P_{\mathrm{cap}}\).

    Official English text of the problem.