IPhO 2018 · Theory problem 3

Physics of Live Systems

Data: Normal atmospheric pressure, \(P_0 = 1.013 \times 10^5\ \mathrm{Pa} = 760\ \mathrm{mmHg}\)

Part A. The physics of blood flow (4.5 points)

In this part you will analyse two simplified models of blood flow in vessels.

Blood vessels are approximately cylindrical in shape, and it is known that for a steady, non turbulent flow of an incompressible fluid in a rigid cylinder, the difference in pressure of the fluid at the two ends of the cylinder is given by

\[ \Delta P=\frac{8\ell\eta}{\pi r^4}Q, \tag{1} \]

where \(\ell\) and \(r\) are the length and radius of the cylinder, \(\eta\) is the fluid viscosity and \(Q\) is the volumetric flow rate, i.e. the fluid volume that passes the cylinder cross section per unit time. This expression is often able to provide the correct order of magnitude for the pressure difference in a vessel, even without taking into account the pulsatile flow, the vessel's compressibility and irregular shape, and the fact that blood is not a simple fluid but a mixture of cells and plasma. Moreover, this expression has the same form as Ohm's law, with the volumetric flow rate being interpreted as a current, the difference in pressure as a voltage, and the factor \(R=\frac{8\ell\eta}{\pi r^4}\) as a resistance.

Consider for example the symmetrical network of arterioles (small arteries) depicted in Figure 1 that delivers blood to the capillary bed of a tissue. In this network, at each bifurcation a vessel is divided in two identical vessels. However, the vessels of higher levels are thinner and shorter: consider that the radii and lengths of vessels in two consecutive levels, \(i\) and \(i+1\), are related by \(r_{i+1}=r_i/2^{1/3}\) and by \(\ell_{i+1}=\ell_i/2^{1/3}\).

Figure 1

Figure 1. Network of arterioles.

A.1 (1.3pt)

Obtain an expression for the volumetric flow rate, \(Q_i\), in a vessel at any level \(i\), as a function of the total number of levels \(N\), of the viscosity \(\eta\), of the radius \(r_0\) and length \(\ell_0\) of the first vessel, and of the difference \(\Delta P=P_0-P_{\mathrm{cap}}\) between the pressure at the arteriole at level 0, \(P_0\), and the pressure at the capillary bed, \(P_{\mathrm{cap}}\).

A.2 (0.5pt)

Calculate the numerical value of the volumetric flow rate \(Q_0\) of the arteriole at level 0, if its radius is \(6.0\times10^{-5}\ \mathrm{m}\) and its length is \(2.0\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{m}\). Consider that the pressure at the arteriole inlet is 55 mmHg and the vessel network has \(N=6\) levels linking this arteriole to the capillary bed at the pressure 30 mmHg. Consider that the blood viscosity is \(\eta=3.5\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{kg\,m^{-1}\,s^{-1}}\). Express your result in ml/h.

A blood vessel as an LCR circuit

The approximation of rigid cylindrical vessels falls short for several reasons. It is particularly important to include the time dependent flow and to take into account the change in vessel diameter that occurs when the pressure varies during a blood pumping cycle done by the heart. Moreover, it is observed that in the larger vessels the blood pressure varies significantly during a cycle, while in the smaller vessels the amplitude of the oscillations in pressure is much smaller, and the flow is almost time independent.

When the pressure increases in a single elastic vessel, there will be an increase in its diameter, thus permitting to store more fluid in the vessel, and to deliver it when the pressure drops. For this reason, the elastic behaviour of the vessel can be simulated by adding a capacitor to our initial description. Moreover, when taking into account the time dependent blood flow rate, one has to consider the inertia of the fluid, proportional to its density \(\rho=1.05\times10^3\ \mathrm{kg\,m^{-3}}\). This inertia can be described by an inductance in our model. In Figure 2 we represent the equivalent circuit for a single vessel in this model. The equivalent capacitance and inductance are given by

\[ C=\frac{3\ell\pi r^3}{2Eh} \quad\text{and}\quad L=\frac{9\ell\rho}{4\pi r^2}, \tag{2} \]

respectively, where \(h\) is the width of the vessel wall and \(E\) is the artery Young's modulus, a coefficient that describes the alteration in size of the vessel tissue when a force is applied. The Young's modulus has units of pressure and is on the order of \(E=0.06\ \mathrm{MPa}\) for arterioles.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Equivalent electric circuit for a single vessel.

A.3 (2.0pt)

Obtain, in the stationary regime, the pressure amplitude at the vessel outlet, \(P_{\mathrm{out}}\), as a function of the pressure amplitude at the inlet, \(P_{\mathrm{in}}\), the equivalent resistance, \(R\), inductance, \(L\) and capacitance, \(C\), for a flow with angular frequency \(\omega\). Establish the condition between \(\eta\), \(\rho\), \(E\), \(h\), \(r\) and \(\ell\) so that, for low frequencies, the pressure oscillation amplitude at the outlet is smaller than that of \(P_{\mathrm{in}}\).

A.4 (0.7pt)

For the vessel network in A.2 estimate the maximum arteriole wall thickness \(h\) so that the condition established in A.3 is satisfied (consider that \(h\) is level independent).

Part B. Tumour growth (5.5 points)

Tumour growth is a very complex process where biological mechanisms such as cell proliferation and natural selection are intertwined with physics. In this problem we will consider a simplified model of tumour growth that addresses the increase in pressure commonly observed in solid tumors.

Consider a group of normal cells forming a tissue surrounded by an inextensible basement membrane, which forces the tissue to maintain always the same form: a sphere of radius \(R\) (Figure 3).

Figure 3

Figure 3. Simplified tumour.

Initially the tissue does not have residual stresses, i.e. the pressure at every point is equal to the atmospheric pressure.

At time \(t=0\), a tumour starts growing at the centre of this sphere and, as it grows, the pressure inside the tissue increases. Consider that both tissues (normal, N, and tumour, T) are compressible such that their densities, \(\rho_{\mathrm N}\) and \(\rho_{\mathrm T}\), increase linearly with pressure:

\[ \rho_{\mathrm N}=\rho_0\left(1+\frac{p}{K_{\mathrm N}}\right), \qquad \rho_{\mathrm T}=\rho_0\left(1+\frac{p}{K_{\mathrm T}}\right), \tag{3} \]

where \(\rho_0\) is the rest tissue density, \(p\) is the pressure difference to the atmospheric pressure and \(K_{\mathrm N}\), \(K_{\mathrm T}\) are the compressibility moduli (bulk moduli) of the normal and tumour tissues, respectively. In general, tumours are stiffer and so they have a higher bulk modulus.

B.1 (1.0pt)

The mass of normal cells is not altered while the tumour is growing. Obtain the ratio between the tumour volume and the total tissue volume, \(v=V_{\mathrm T}/V\), as a function of the ratio between the tumour mass (\(M_{\mathrm T}\)) and the normal tissue mass (\(M_{\mathrm N}\)), \(\mu=M_{\mathrm T}/M_{\mathrm N}\) and the ratio of the bulk moduli, \(\kappa=K_{\mathrm N}/K_{\mathrm T}\).

Hyperthermia is sometimes used together with chemotherapy and radiotherapy in the treatment of cancer. In hyperthermia the cancer cells are selectively heated from the normal human body temperature, \(37\,^\circ\mathrm C\), to temperatures above \(43\,^\circ\mathrm C\), inducing their death. Researchers are currently developing carbon nanotubes covered with special proteins capable of binding to tumour cells. When the tissue is irradiated with near-infrared radiation, the nanotubes absorb it in a much greater extent than the surrounding tissues and therefore can be selectively heated as well as the tumour cells to which they are attached.

Consider that the tumour, the normal cells and the surrounding tissue have a constant thermal conductivity \(k\), i.e. in the geometry of this problem, the energy that crosses a spherical surface of radius \(r\) per unit time and per unit area is equal to \(k\) times the derivative of the temperature with respect to \(r\). The nanotubes are uniformly distributed in the tumour volume and are able to deliver a power \(\mathcal P\) of thermal energy per unit volume. Assume that the temperature is equal to the normal human body temperature very far away from the tumour.

B.2 (1.7pt)

Obtain, for the stationary state, the temperature at the centre of the tumour as a function of \(\mathcal P\), \(k\), the human body temperature and the tumour radius, \(R_{\mathrm T}\).

B.3 (0.5pt)

Obtain the minimum power per unit volume, \(\mathcal P_{\min}\), needed to heat up all tumour cells in a tumour with 5.0 cm radius to a temperature larger than \(43.0\,^\circ\mathrm C\). Take the thermal conductivity of the tissue to be equal to \(k=0.60\ \mathrm{W\,K^{-1}\,m^{-1}}\).

Consider that the tumour is irrigated by a vessel network with a branched structure like in question A.1. As the tumour grows, when its pressure \(p\) becomes larger than the pressure \(P_{\mathrm{cap}}\) at the thinnest vessels, the radii of these vessels will decrease by a small amount \(\delta r\). If this pressure reaches a critical value \(p_c\) (which would correspond to a radius decrease of \(\delta r_c\)), the thinnest vessels would collapse, compromising seriously the irrigation to the tumour. The pressure and the radius change can be related by the following phenomenological relation:

\[ \frac{p}{P_{\mathrm{cap}}}-1 = \left(\frac{p_c}{P_{\mathrm{cap}}}-1\right) \left(2-\frac{\delta r}{\delta r_c}\right) \frac{\delta r}{\delta r_c}. \tag{4} \]

Consider that just the smallest vessels (of level \(N-1\)) have their radius altered when the tumour increases its pressure.

B.4 (2.3pt)

In the linear regime (i.e. consider that \(p-P_{\mathrm{cap}}\) is very small), express the relative drop in the flow rate, \(\frac{\delta Q_{N-1}}{Q_{N-1}}\), in these thinnest vessels, as a function of the tumour volume ratio \(v=V_{\mathrm T}/V\) and \(K_{\mathrm N}\), \(N\), \(p_c\), \(\delta r_c\), \(r_{N-1}\), \(P_{\mathrm{cap}}\).

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • A.1 \[ \boxed{Q_i=\frac{\pi r_0^4\Delta P}{8\eta\ell_0N\,2^i}}, \qquad i=0,\ldots,N-1. \]

  • A.2 \[ \boxed{Q_0=1.4536\ldots\ \mathrm{ml/h}\simeq1.5\ \mathrm{ml/h}}. \]

  • A.3 \[ \boxed{ P_{\mathrm{out}} =\frac{P_{\mathrm{in}}} {\sqrt{(1-\omega^2LC)^2+(\omega RC)^2}} }. \] Attenuation at sufficiently low nonzero frequencies requires \[ \boxed{R^2C\ge2L \quad\Longleftrightarrow\quad h\le\frac{64\eta^2\ell^2}{3\rho E r^3}}. \] The inequality is strict for attenuation at order \(\omega^2\); equality gives attenuation at order \(\omega^4\).

  • A.4 \[ \boxed{ h_{\max}=\frac{64\eta^2\ell_0^2}{3\rho E r_0^3} \simeq7.7\times10^{-5}\ \mathrm m =77\ \mu\mathrm m }. \] Level \(0\) imposes the strongest constraint.

  • B.1 \[ \boxed{ v=\frac{2\mu}{1+\mu+\sqrt{(1-\mu)^2+4\kappa\mu}} }. \]

  • B.2 With \(T_b\) the normal body temperature, \[ \boxed{T(0)=T_b+\frac{\mathcal P R_{\mathrm T}^2}{2k}}. \]

  • B.3 \[ \boxed{ \mathcal P_{\min} =\frac{3k(43.0-37.0)\ \mathrm K}{R_{\mathrm T}^2} \simeq4.3\times10^3\ \mathrm{W\,m^{-3}} }. \] This is the threshold; strictly exceeding \(43.0\,^\circ\mathrm C\) everywhere requires power density above it.

  • B.4 Taking \(\delta Q_{N-1}\) to mean the positive decrease, \[ \boxed{ \frac{\delta Q_{N-1}}{Q_{N-1}} \simeq \frac{2\delta r_c}{N r_{N-1}(p_c-P_{\mathrm{cap}})} \left(\frac{K_{\mathrm N}v}{1-v}-P_{\mathrm{cap}}\right) }. \] This applies just above the onset of compression, where \(p>P_{\mathrm{cap}}\).

Solution

A.1

The geometrical scaling gives

\[ r_i=r_0\,2^{-i/3}, \qquad \ell_i=\ell_0\,2^{-i/3}. \]

Consequently, the hydraulic resistance of one vessel at level \(i\) is

\[ R_i=\frac{8\eta\ell_i}{\pi r_i^4} =\frac{8\eta\ell_0}{\pi r_0^4}\,2^i =R_0\,2^i. \]

Conservation of volume flow and symmetry imply that the flow divides equally at each bifurcation. Thus

\[ Q_i=\frac{Q_0}{2^i}. \]

The pressure drop across any one vessel at level \(i\) is therefore

\[ \Delta P_i=R_iQ_i=R_0Q_0. \]

Every path from the inlet to the capillary bed passes through one vessel at each of the \(N\) levels. Adding the pressure drops along such a path,

\[ \Delta P=NR_0Q_0. \]

Hence

\[ \boxed{ Q_i=\frac{Q_0}{2^i} =\frac{\pi r_0^4\Delta P}{8\eta\ell_0N\,2^i} }. \]

Equivalently, each level contributes \(R_i/2^i=R_0\) to the total network resistance, so \(R_{\mathrm{eq}}=NR_0\).

A.2

Using the supplied conversion between mmHg and pascals,

\[ \Delta P=(55-30)\frac{1.013\times10^5}{760}\ \mathrm{Pa} =3.3322\times10^3\ \mathrm{Pa}. \]

Therefore,

\[ Q_0 = \frac{\pi(6.0\times10^{-5})^4(3.3322\times10^3)} {8(3.5\times10^{-3})(2.0\times10^{-3})(6)} = 4.0379\times10^{-10}\ \mathrm{m^3\,s^{-1}}. \]

Since \(1\ \mathrm{m^3}=10^6\ \mathrm{ml}\) and \(1\ \mathrm h=3600\ \mathrm s\),

\[ Q_0 =(4.0379\times10^{-10})(10^6)(3600) =1.4536\ \mathrm{ml/h}. \]

To two significant figures,

\[ \boxed{Q_0\simeq1.5\ \mathrm{ml/h}}. \]

A.3

In the circuit analogy, pressure corresponds to voltage and volume flow to current. The capacitor relation and the pressure balance around the circuit are

\[ Q=C\frac{dp_{\mathrm{out}}}{dt}, \qquad p_{\mathrm{in}}-p_{\mathrm{out}} =RQ+L\frac{dQ}{dt}. \]

Combining these equations gives

\[ LC\frac{d^2p_{\mathrm{out}}}{dt^2} +RC\frac{dp_{\mathrm{out}}}{dt} +p_{\mathrm{out}} =p_{\mathrm{in}}. \]

After transients have decayed, the input and output oscillate at the same angular frequency. Representing them by complex amplitudes,

\[ \left(1-\omega^2LC+i\omega RC\right) \widetilde P_{\mathrm{out}} =\widetilde P_{\mathrm{in}}. \]

Taking absolute values,

\[ \boxed{ P_{\mathrm{out}} = \frac{P_{\mathrm{in}}} {\sqrt{(1-\omega^2LC)^2+\omega^2R^2C^2}} }. \]

The square of the denominator is

\[ 1+C(R^2C-2L)\omega^2+L^2C^2\omega^4. \]

For sufficiently small nonzero \(\omega\), attenuation at leading order requires

\[ R^2C>2L. \]

If \(R^2C<2L\), the denominator is smaller than unity at sufficiently low frequencies and the pressure oscillation is amplified. At the boundary \(R^2C=2L\), the denominator squared becomes \(1+L^2C^2\omega^4>1\), so the boundary also attenuates, although only at order \(\omega^4\). The exact condition is therefore \(R^2C\ge2L\).

Substituting the given vessel parameters,

\[ R^2C = \left(\frac{8\ell\eta}{\pi r^4}\right)^2 \frac{3\ell\pi r^3}{2Eh} = \frac{96\eta^2\ell^3}{\pi Eh r^5}, \]

whereas

\[ 2L=\frac{9\ell\rho}{2\pi r^2}. \]

Thus

\[ \boxed{ 64\eta^2\ell^2\ge3\rho Eh r^3 } \]

or, equivalently,

\[ \boxed{ h\le h_{\mathrm{crit}} =\frac{64\eta^2\ell^2}{3\rho E r^3} }. \]

For attenuation at order \(\omega^2\), replace these inequalities by strict ones. At zero frequency, the pressure gain is exactly unity.

A.4

At level \(i\),

\[ h_{\mathrm{crit},i} = \frac{64\eta^2\ell_i^2}{3\rho E r_i^3} = \frac{64\eta^2\ell_0^2}{3\rho E r_0^3}\,2^{i/3}. \]

This bound increases with level number. Since the same wall thickness must satisfy the condition at every level, the strongest constraint is imposed by level \(0\).

Using \(E=0.06\times10^6\ \mathrm{Pa}\),

\[ h_{\max} = \frac{64(3.5\times10^{-3})^2(2.0\times10^{-3})^2} {3(1.05\times10^3)(0.06\times10^6)(6.0\times10^{-5})^3} = 7.6818\times10^{-5}\ \mathrm m. \]

Thus, within the given model,

\[ \boxed{h_{\max}\simeq7.7\times10^{-5}\ \mathrm m=77\ \mu\mathrm m}. \]

A thickness below this limiting value gives the strict leading-order attenuation condition throughout the network.

B.1

The total tissue volume \(V\) is fixed. Initially it contains normal tissue at density \(\rho_0\), so conservation of normal-cell mass gives

\[ M_{\mathrm N}=\rho_0V =\rho_{\mathrm N}(V-V_{\mathrm T}). \]

Writing \(v=V_{\mathrm T}/V\) and using equation (3),

\[ 1=\left(1+\frac{p}{K_{\mathrm N}}\right)(1-v). \]

Hence the pressure is related to tumour volume by

\[ \boxed{p=\frac{K_{\mathrm N}v}{1-v}}. \]

The tumour mass is

\[ M_{\mathrm T} =\rho_0\left(1+\frac{p}{K_{\mathrm T}}\right)V_{\mathrm T}. \]

Dividing by \(M_{\mathrm N}=\rho_0V\),

\[ \mu =v\left(1+\frac{p}{K_{\mathrm T}}\right) =v\left(1+\frac{\kappa v}{1-v}\right). \]

Rearranging gives a quadratic equation for \(v\):

\[ (1-\kappa)v^2-(1+\mu)v+\mu=0. \]

The physical root approaches zero when \(\mu\) approaches zero. For \(\kappa\ne1\), it is

\[ v= \frac{1+\mu-\sqrt{(1+\mu)^2-4(1-\kappa)\mu}} {2(1-\kappa)}. \]

Rationalizing yields a form that also applies directly when \(\kappa=1\):

\[ \boxed{ v=\frac{2\mu} {1+\mu+\sqrt{(1-\mu)^2+4\kappa\mu}} }. \]

As a check, for equal bulk moduli the two tissues have equal densities, giving \(v=\mu/(1+\mu)\), as this expression predicts.

B.2

Let \(T_b\) be the body temperature far from the tumour. In the stationary state, the outward heat current through a sphere equals the total power generated inside it. With outward heat flow taken as positive, Fourier's law is

\[ \dot H(r)=-4\pi r^2k\frac{dT}{dr}. \]

Inside the tumour, \(0\le r\le R_{\mathrm T}\), uniform heat generation gives

\[ -4\pi r^2k\frac{dT}{dr} =\frac{4\pi r^3}{3}\mathcal P, \]

so

\[ \frac{dT}{dr}=-\frac{\mathcal P r}{3k}. \]

Outside the tumour, the entire generated power crosses every spherical surface:

\[ -4\pi r^2k\frac{dT}{dr} =\frac{4\pi R_{\mathrm T}^3}{3}\mathcal P. \]

Integrating with \(T(r)\to T_b\) as \(r\to\infty\),

\[ T(r)=T_b+\frac{\mathcal P R_{\mathrm T}^3}{3kr}, \qquad r\ge R_{\mathrm T}. \]

Thus the temperature at the tumour surface is

\[ T(R_{\mathrm T})=T_b+\frac{\mathcal P R_{\mathrm T}^2}{3k}. \]

Temperature is continuous at the surface. Integrating the interior gradient inward from that surface gives

\[ T(r) = T(R_{\mathrm T}) +\frac{\mathcal P}{6k}(R_{\mathrm T}^2-r^2) = T_b+\frac{\mathcal P}{6k}(3R_{\mathrm T}^2-r^2). \]

Consequently,

\[ \boxed{T(0)=T_b+\frac{\mathcal P R_{\mathrm T}^2}{2k}}. \]

The temperature decreases quadratically inside the tumour and approaches \(T_b\) as \(1/r\) outside it.

B.3

The temperature decreases with distance from the centre, so the coldest tumour cells are at its surface. Heating every tumour cell above \(43.0\,^\circ\mathrm C\) therefore requires

\[ T(R_{\mathrm T}) =T_b+\frac{\mathcal P R_{\mathrm T}^2}{3k} >43.0\,^\circ\mathrm C. \]

The threshold power density is

\[ \mathcal P_{\min} =\frac{3k(43.0-37.0)\ \mathrm K}{R_{\mathrm T}^2}. \]

Substituting \(R_{\mathrm T}=5.0\times10^{-2}\ \mathrm m\),

\[ \mathcal P_{\min} = \frac{3(0.60)(6.0)}{(5.0\times10^{-2})^2} = 4.32\times10^3\ \mathrm{W\,m^{-3}}. \]

Thus

\[ \boxed{\mathcal P_{\min}\simeq4.3\times10^3\ \mathrm{W\,m^{-3}}}. \]

At this threshold the surface is exactly at \(43.0\,^\circ\mathrm C\), while the centre is at \(46.0\,^\circ\mathrm C\). Strictly exceeding the specified temperature everywhere requires \(\mathcal P>4.32\times10^3\ \mathrm{W\,m^{-3}}\).

B.4

First linearize the pressure–radius relation. Equation (4) can be written as

\[ p-P_{\mathrm{cap}} = (p_c-P_{\mathrm{cap}}) \left[ 2\frac{\delta r}{\delta r_c} -\left(\frac{\delta r}{\delta r_c}\right)^2 \right]. \]

On the branch connected to the uncompressed state, sufficiently close to \(p=P_{\mathrm{cap}}\),

\[ \boxed{ \delta r\simeq \frac{\delta r_c}{2(p_c-P_{\mathrm{cap}})} (p-P_{\mathrm{cap}}) }. \]

Only the terminal vessels change radius. Set

\[ \epsilon=\frac{\delta r}{r_{N-1}}\ll1. \]

Their lengths remain unchanged, so Poiseuille's law gives

\[ R'_{N-1} =R_{N-1}(1-\epsilon)^{-4} \simeq R_{N-1}(1+4\epsilon). \]

From A.1, the \(2^{N-1}\) terminal vessels together initially contribute \(R_0\) to the network resistance. The other \(N-1\) levels remain unchanged. Thus

\[ R'_{\mathrm{eq}} = (N-1)R_0+R_0(1-\epsilon)^{-4} \simeq NR_0+4R_0\epsilon. \]

For fixed inlet and capillary pressures, the total flow is inversely proportional to \(R_{\mathrm{eq}}\). Symmetry still makes the terminal flow equal to the total flow divided by \(2^{N-1}\), so its fractional decrease is the same as that of the total flow:

\[ \frac{\delta Q_{N-1}}{Q_{N-1}} \simeq \frac{R'_{\mathrm{eq}}-R_{\mathrm{eq}}}{R_{\mathrm{eq}}} = \frac{4}{N}\frac{\delta r}{r_{N-1}}. \]

The factor \(1/N\) accounts for the fact that only one of the \(N\) equal resistance contributions changes.

Substituting the linearized radius change,

\[ \frac{\delta Q_{N-1}}{Q_{N-1}} \simeq \frac{2\delta r_c}{N r_{N-1}} \frac{p-P_{\mathrm{cap}}}{p_c-P_{\mathrm{cap}}}. \]

Finally, normal-cell mass conservation from B.1 gives \(p=K_{\mathrm N}v/(1-v)\). Therefore,

\[ \boxed{ \frac{\delta Q_{N-1}}{Q_{N-1}} \simeq \frac{2\delta r_c} {N r_{N-1}(p_c-P_{\mathrm{cap}})} \left( \frac{K_{\mathrm N}v}{1-v}-P_{\mathrm{cap}} \right) }. \]

This expression applies just above the onset volume fraction

\[ v_*=\frac{P_{\mathrm{cap}}}{K_{\mathrm N}+P_{\mathrm{cap}}}, \]

with \((p-P_{\mathrm{cap}})/(p_c-P_{\mathrm{cap}})\ll1\) and \(\delta r/r_{N-1}\ll1\). Below the onset, the stated model does not prescribe vessel narrowing.

The solution was checked against the official solution.