International Physics Olympiad

IPhO 2007

Isfahan, Iran · 3 theory problems with complete solutions

  1. Problem 1: Dimensional analysis and black holes (Hawking radiation)

    In physics, whenever we have an equality relation, both sides of the equation should be of the same type i.e. they must have the same dimensions. For example you cannot have a situation where the quantity on the right-hand side of the equation represents a length and the quantity on the left-hand side represents a time interval. Using this fact, sometimes one can nearly deduce the form of a physical relation without solving the problem analytically. For example if we were asked to find the time it takes for an object to fall from a height of \(h\) under the influence of a constant gravitational acceleration \(g\), we could argue that one only needs to build a quantity representing a time interval, using the quantities \(g\) and \(h\) and the only possible way of doing this is \(T=a(h/g)^{1/2}\). Notice that this solution includes an as yet undetermined coefficient \(a\) which is dimensionless and thus cannot be determined, using this method. This coefficient can be a number such as \(1\), \(1/2\), \(\sqrt{3}\), \(\pi\), or any other real number. This method of deducing physical relations is called dimensional analysis. In dimensional analysis the dimensionless coefficients are not important and we do not need to write them. Fortunately in most physical problems these coefficients are of the order of 1 and eliminating them does not change the order of magnitude of the physical quantities. Therefore, by applying the dimensional analysis to the above problem, one obtains \(T=(h/g)^{1/2}\).

    Generally, the dimensions of a physical quantity are written in terms of the dimensions of four fundamental quantities: \(M\) (mass), \(L\) (length), \(T\) (time), and \(K\) (temperature). The dimensions of an arbitrary quantity, \(x\) is denoted by \([x]\). As an example, to express the dimensions of velocity \(v\), kinetic energy \(E_k\), and heat capacity \(C_V\) we write: \([v]=LT^{-1}\), \([E_k]=ML^2T^{-2}\), \([C_V]=ML^2T^{-2}K^{-1}\).

    1 Fundamental Constants and Dimensional Analysis

    1.1 Find the dimensions of the fundamental constants, i.e. the Planck's constant, \(h\), the speed of light, \(c\), the universal constant of gravitation, \(G\), and the Boltzmann constant, \(k_B\), in terms of the dimensions of length, mass, time, and temperature. 0.8

    The Stefan-Boltzmann law states that the black body emissive power which is the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body in unit time is equal to \(\sigma\theta^4\) where \(\sigma\) is the Stefan-Boltzmann's constant and \(\theta\) is the absolute temperature of the black body.

    1.2 Determine the dimensions of the Stefan-Boltzmann's constant in terms of the dimensions of length, mass, time, and temperature. 0.5

    The Stefan-Boltzmann's constant is not a fundamental constant and one can write it in terms of fundamental constants i.e. one can write \(\sigma=ah^\alpha c^\beta G^\gamma k_B^\delta\). In this relation \(a\) is a dimensionless parameter of the order of 1. As mentioned before, the exact value of \(a\) is not significant from our viewpoint, so we will set it equal to 1.

    1.3 Find \(\alpha\), \(\beta\), \(\gamma\), and \(\delta\) using dimensional analysis. 1.0

    2 Physics of Black Holes

    In this part of the problem, we would like to find out some properties of black holes using dimensional analysis. According to a certain theorem in physics known as the no hair theorem, all the characteristics of the black hole which we are considering in this problem depend only on the mass of the black hole. One characteristic of a black hole is the area of its event horizon. Roughly speaking, the event horizon is the boundary of the black hole. Inside this boundary, the gravity is so strong that even light cannot emerge from the region enclosed by the boundary.

    We would like to find a relation between the mass of a black hole, \(m\), and the area of its event horizon, \(A\). This area depends on the mass of the black hole, the speed of light, and the universal constant of gravitation. As in 1.3 we shall write \(A=G^\alpha c^\beta m^\gamma\).

    2.1 Use dimensional analysis to find \(\alpha\), \(\beta\), and \(\gamma\). 0.8

    From the result of 2.1 it becomes clear that the area of the event horizon of a black hole increases with its mass. From a classical point of view, nothing comes out of a black hole and therefore in all physical processes the area of the event horizon can only increase. In analogy with the second law of thermodynamics, Bekenstein proposed to assign entropy, \(S\), to a black hole, proportional to the area of its event horizon i.e. \(S=\eta A\). This conjecture has been made more plausible using other arguments.

    2.2 Use the thermodynamic definition of entropy \(dS=dQ/\theta\) to find the dimensions of entropy.
    \(dQ\) is the exchanged heat and \(\theta\) is the absolute temperature of the system.
    0.2
    2.3 As in 1.3, express the dimensioned constant \(\eta\) as a function of the fundamental constants \(h\), \(c\), \(G\), and \(k_B\). 1.1

    Do not use dimensional analysis for the rest of problem, but you may use the results you have obtained in previous sections.

    3 Hawking Radiation

    With a semi-quantum mechanical approach, Hawking argued that contrary to the classical point of view, black holes emit radiation similar to the radiation of a black body at a temperature which is called the Hawking temperature.

    3.1 Use \(E=mc^2\), which gives the energy of the black hole in terms of its mass, and the laws of thermodynamics to express the Hawking temperature \(\theta_H\) of a black hole in terms of its mass and the fundamental constants. Assume that the black hole does no work on its surroundings. 0.8
    3.2 The mass of an isolated black hole will thus change because of the Hawking radiation. Use Stefan-Boltzmann's law to find the dependence of this rate of change on the Hawking temperature of the black hole, \(\theta_H\) and express it in terms of mass of the black hole and the fundamental constants. 0.7
    3.3 Find the time \(t^*\), that it takes an isolated black hole of mass \(m\) to evaporate completely i.e. to lose all its mass. 1.1

    From the viewpoint of thermodynamics, black holes exhibit certain exotic behaviors. For example the heat capacity of a black hole is negative.

    3.4 Find the heat capacity of a black hole of mass \(m\). 0.6

    4 Black Holes and the Cosmic Background Radiation

    Consider a black hole exposed to the cosmic background radiation. The cosmic background radiation is a black body radiation with a temperature \(\theta_B\) which fills the entire universe. An object with a total area \(A\) will thus receive an energy equal to \(\sigma\theta_B^4\times A\) per unit time. A black hole, therefore, loses energy through Hawking radiation and gains energy from the cosmic background radiation.

    4.1 Find the rate of change of a black hole's mass, in terms of the mass of the black hole, the temperature of the cosmic background radiation, and the fundamental constants. 0.8
    4.2 At a certain mass, \(m^*\), this rate of change will vanish. Find \(m^*\) and express it in terms of \(\theta_B\) and the fundamental constants. 0.4
    4.3 Use your answer to 4.2 to substitute for \(\theta_B\) in your answer to part 4.1 and express the rate of change of the mass of a black hole in terms of \(m\), \(m^*\), and the fundamental constants. 0.2
    4.4 Find the Hawking temperature of a black hole at thermal equilibrium with cosmic background radiation. 0.4
    4.5 Is the equilibrium stable or unstable? Why? (Express your answer mathematically) 0.6

    Official English text of the problem.

  2. Problem 2: Capacitive accelerometer for a car air bag

    In this problem we deal with a simplified model of accelerometers designed to activate the safety air bags of automobiles during a collision. We would like to build an electromechanical system in such a way that when the acceleration exceeds a certain limit, one of the electrical parameters of the system such as the voltage at a certain point of the circuit will exceed a threshold and the air bag will be activated as a result.

    Note: Ignore gravity in this problem.

    1 Consider a capacitor with parallel plates as in Figure 1. The area of each plate in the capacitor is \(A\) and the distance between the two plates is \(d\). The distance between the two plates is much smaller than the dimensions of the plates. One of these plates is in contact with a wall through a spring with a spring constant \(k\), and the other plate is fixed. When the distance between the plates is \(d\) the spring is neither compressed nor stretched, in other words no force is exerted on the spring in this state. Assume that the permittivity of the air between the plates is that of free vacuum \(\varepsilon_0\). The capacitance corresponding to this distance between the plates of the capacitor is \(C_0=\varepsilon_0 A/d\). We put charges \(+Q\) and \(-Q\) on the plates and let the system achieve mechanical equilibrium.

    Figure 1

    Figure 1

    Part Question Points
    1.1 Calculate the electrical force, \(F_E\), exerted by the plates on each other. 0.8
    1.2 Let \(x\) be the displacement of the plate connected to the spring. Find \(x\). 0.6
    1.3 In this state, what is the electrical potential difference \(V\) between the plates of the capacitor in terms of \(Q\), \(A\), \(d\), \(k\)? 0.4
    1.4 Let \(C\) be the capacitance of the capacitor, defined as the ratio of charge to potential difference. Find \(C/C_0\) as a function of \(Q\), \(A\), \(d\) and \(k\). 0.3
    1.5 What is the total energy, \(U\), stored in the system in terms of \(Q\), \(A\), \(d\) and \(k\)? 0.6

    Figure 2, shows a mass \(M\) which is attached to a conducting plate with negligible mass and also to two springs having identical spring constants \(k\). The conducting plate can move back and forth in the space between two fixed conducting plates. All these plates are similar and have the same area \(A\). Thus these three plates constitute two capacitors. As shown in Figure 2, the fixed plates are connected to the given potentials \(V\) and \(-V\), and the middle plate is connected through a two-state switch to the ground. The wire connected to the movable plate does not disturb the motion of the plate and the three plates will always remain parallel. When the whole complex is not being accelerated, the distance from each fixed plate to the movable plate is \(d\) which is much smaller than the dimensions of the plates. The thickness of the movable plate can be ignored.

    Figure 2

    Figure 2

    The switch can be in either one of the two states \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\). Assume that the capacitor complex is being accelerated along with the automobile, and the acceleration is constant. Assume that during this constant acceleration the spring does not oscillate and all components of this complex capacitor are in their equilibrium positions, i.e. they do not move with respect to each other, and hence with respect to the automobile.

    Due to the acceleration, the movable plate will be displaced a certain amount \(x\) from the middle of the two fixed plates.

    2 Consider the case where the switch is in state \(\alpha\) i.e. the movable plate is connected to the ground through a wire, then

    Part Question Points
    2.1 Find the charge on each capacitor as a function of \(x\). 0.4
    2.2 Find the net electrical force on the movable plate, \(F_E\), as a function of \(x\). 0.4
    2.3 Assume \(d\gg x\) and terms of order \(x^2\) can be ignored compared to terms of order \(d^2\). Simplify the answer to the previous part. 0.2
    2.4 Write the total force on the movable plate (the sum of the electrical and the spring forces) as \(-k_{\mathrm{eff}}x\) and give the form of \(k_{\mathrm{eff}}\). 0.7
    2.5 Express the constant acceleration \(a\) as a function of \(x\). 0.4

    3 Now assume that the switch is in state \(\beta\) i.e. the movable plate is connected to the ground through a capacitor, the capacitance of which is \(C_S\) (there is no initial charge on the capacitors). If the movable plate is displaced by an amount \(x\) from its central position,

    Part Question Points
    3.1 Find \(V_S\) the electrical potential difference across the capacitor \(C_S\) as a function of \(x\). 1.5
    3.2 Again assume that \(d\gg x\) and ignore terms of order \(x^2\) compared to terms of order \(d^2\). Simplify your answer to the previous part. 0.2

    4 We would like to adjust the parameters in the problem such that the air bag will not be activated in normal braking but opens fast enough during a collision to prevent the driver’s head from colliding with the windshield or the steering wheel. As you have seen in Part 2, the force exerted on the movable plate by the springs and the electrical charges can be represented as that of a spring with an effective spring constant \(k_{\mathrm{eff}}\). The whole capacitor complex is similar to a mass and spring system of mass \(M\) and spring constant \(k_{\mathrm{eff}}\) under the influence of a constant acceleration \(a\), which in this problem is the acceleration of the automobile.

    Note: In this part of the problem, the assumption that the mass and spring are in equilibrium under a constant acceleration and hence are fixed relative to the automobile, no longer holds.

    Ignore friction and consider the following numerical values for the parameters of the problem:

    \[ \begin{gathered} d=1.0\,\mathrm{cm},\qquad A=2.5\times10^{-2}\,\mathrm{m^2},\qquad k=4.2\times10^3\,\mathrm{N/m},\\ \varepsilon_0=8.85\times10^{-12}\,\mathrm{C^2/(N\,m^2)},\qquad V=12\,\mathrm V,\qquad M=0.15\,\mathrm{kg}. \end{gathered} \]

    Part Question Points
    4.1 Using this data, find the ratio of the electrical force you calculated in section 2.3 to the force of the springs and show that one can ignore the electrical forces compared to the spring forces. 0.6

    Although we did not calculate the electrical forces for the case when the switch is in the state \(\beta\), it can be shown that in this situation, quite similarly, the electrical forces are as small and can be ignored.

    Part Question Points
    4.2 If the automobile while traveling with a constant velocity, suddenly brakes with a constant acceleration \(a\), what is the maximum displacement of the movable plate? Give your answer in parameter. 0.6

    Assume that the switch is in state \(\beta\) and the system has been designed such that when the electrical voltage across the capacitor reaches \(V_S=0.15\,\mathrm V\), the air bag is activated. We would like the air bag not to be activated during normal braking when the automobile’s acceleration is less than the acceleration of gravity \(g=9.8\,\mathrm{m/s^2}\), but be activated otherwise.

    Part Question Points
    4.3 How much should \(C_S\) be for this purpose? 0.6

    We would like to find out if the air bag will be activated fast enough to prevent the driver’s head from hitting the windshield or the steering wheel. Assume that as a result of collision, the automobile experiences a deceleration equal to \(g\) but the driver’s head keeps moving at a constant speed.

    Part Question Points
    4.4 By estimating the distance between the driver’s head and the steering wheel, find the time \(t_1\) it takes before the driver’s head hits the steering wheel. 0.8
    4.5 Find the time \(t_2\) before the air bag is activated and compare it to \(t_1\). Is the air bag activated in time? Assume that airbag opens instantaneously. 0.9

    Official English text of the problem.

  3. Problem 3: Binary stars

    Two stars rotating around their center of mass form a binary star system. Almost half of the stars in our galaxy are binary star systems. It is not easy to realize the binary nature of most of these star systems from Earth, since the distance between the two stars is much less than their distance from us and thus the stars cannot be resolved with telescopes. Therefore, we have to use either photometry or spectrometry to observe the variations in the intensity or the spectrum of a particular star to find out whether it is a binary system or not.

    Photometry of Binary Stars

    If we are exactly on the plane of motion of the two stars, then one star will occult (pass in front of) the other star at certain times and the intensity of the whole system will vary with time from our observation point. These binary systems are called ecliptic binaries.

    1 Assume that two stars are moving on circular orbits around their common center of mass with a constant angular speed \(\omega\) and we are exactly on the plane of motion of the binary system. Also assume that the surface temperatures of the stars are \(T_1\) and \(T_2\) \((T_1>T_2)\), and the corresponding radii are \(R_1\) and \(R_2\) \((R_1>R_2)\), respectively. The total intensity of light, measured on Earth, is plotted in Figure 1 as a function of time. Careful measurements indicate that the intensities of the incident light from the stars corresponding to the minima are respectively 90 and 63 percent of the maximum intensity, \(I_0\), received from both stars \(\left(I_0=4.8\times10^{-9}\ \mathrm{W/m^2}\right)\). The vertical axis in Figure 1 shows the ratio \(I/I_0\) and the horizontal axis is marked in days.

    Figure 1

    Figure 1. The relative intensity received from the binary star system as a function of time. The vertical axis has been scaled by \(I_0=4.8\times10^{-9}\ \mathrm{W/m^2}\). Time is given in days.

    1.1 — 0.8 points

    Find the period of the orbital motion. Give your answer in seconds up to two significant digits.
    What is the angular frequency of the system in rad/sec?

    To a good approximation, the receiving radiation from a star is a uniform black body radiation from a flat disc with a radius equal to the radius of the star. Therefore, the power received from the star is proportional to \(AT^4\) where \(A\) is area of the disc and \(T\) is the surface temperature of the star.

    1.2 — 1.6 points

    Use the diagram in Figure 1 to find the ratios \(T_1/T_2\) and \(R_1/R_2\).

    Spectrometry of Binary Systems

    In this section, we are going to calculate the astronomical properties of a binary star by using experimental spectrometric data of the binary system.

    Atoms absorb or emit radiation at their certain characteristic wavelengths. Consequently, the observed spectrum of a star contains absorption lines due to the atoms in the star’s atmosphere. Sodium has a characteristic yellow line spectrum (\(\mathrm{D}_1\) line) with a wavelength \(5895.9\ \text{Å}\) (\(10\ \text{Å}=1\ \mathrm{nm}\)). We examine the absorption spectrum of atomic Sodium at this wavelength for the binary system of the previous section. The spectrum of the light that we receive from the binary star is Doppler-shifted, because the stars are moving with respect to us. Each star has a different speed. Accordingly the absorption wavelength for each star will be shifted by a different amount. Highly accurate wavelength measurements are required to observe the Doppler shift since the speed of the stars is much less than the speed of light. The speed of the center of mass of the binary system we consider in this problem is much smaller than the orbital velocities of the stars. Hence all the Doppler shifts can be attributed to the orbital velocity of the stars. Table 1 shows the measured spectrum of the stars in the binary system we have observed.

    Table 1: Absorption spectrum of the binary star system for the Sodium \(\mathrm{D}_1\) line

    \(t/\mathrm{days}\) 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4
    \(\lambda_1\) (Å) 5897.5 5897.7 5897.2 5896.2 5895.1 5894.3 5894.1 5894.6
    \(\lambda_2\) (Å) 5893.1 5892.8 5893.7 5896.2 5897.3 5898.7 5899.0 5898.1
    \(t/\mathrm{days}\) 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8
    \(\lambda_1\) (Å) 5895.6 5896.7 5897.3 5897.7 5897.2 5896.2 5895.0 5894.3
    \(\lambda_2\) (Å) 5896.4 5894.5 5893.1 5892.8 5893.7 5896.2 5897.4 5898.7

    (Note: There is no need to make a graph of the data in this table)

    2 Using Table 1,

    2.1 — 1.8 points

    Let \(v_1\) and \(v_2\) be the orbital velocity of each star. Find \(v_1\) and \(v_2\).
    The speed of light \(c=3.0\times10^8\ \mathrm{m/s}\). Ignore all relativistic effects.

    2.2 — 0.7 points

    Find the mass ratio of the stars \((m_1/m_2)\).

    2.3 — 0.8 points

    Let \(r_1\) and \(r_2\) be the distances of each star from their center of mass.
    Find \(r_1\) and \(r_2\).

    2.4 — 0.2 points

    Let \(r\) be the distance between the stars. Find \(r\).

    3 The gravitational force is the only force acting between the stars.

    3.1 — 1.2 points

    Find the mass of each star up to one significant digit.
    The universal gravitational constant \(G=6.7\times10^{-11}\ \mathrm{m^3\,kg^{-1}\,s^{-2}}\).

    General Characteristics of Stars

    4 Most of the stars generate energy through the same mechanism. Because of this, there is an empirical relation between their mass, \(M\), and their luminosity, \(L\), which is the total radiant power of the star. This relation could be written in the form \(L/L_{\mathrm{Sun}}=(M/M_{\mathrm{Sun}})^\alpha\).

    Here, \(M_{\mathrm{Sun}}=2.0\times10^{30}\ \mathrm{kg}\) is the solar mass and, \(L_{\mathrm{Sun}}=3.9\times10^{26}\ \mathrm{W}\) is the solar luminosity. This relation is shown in a log-log diagram in Figure 2.

    Figure 2

    Figure 2. The luminosity of a star versus its mass varies as a power law. The diagram is log-log. The star-symbol represents Sun with a mass of \(2.0\times10^{30}\ \mathrm{kg}\) and luminosity of \(3.9\times10^{26}\ \mathrm{W}\).

    4.1 — 0.6 points

    Find \(\alpha\) up to one significant digit.

    4.2 — 0.6 points

    Let \(L_1\) and \(L_2\) be the luminosity of the stars in the binary system studied in the previous sections. Find \(L_1\) and \(L_2\).

    4.3 — 0.9 points

    What is the distance, \(d\), of the star system from us in light years?
    To find the distance you can use the diagram of Figure 1. One light year is the distance light travels in one year.

    4.4 — 0.4 points

    What is the maximum angular distance, \(\theta\), between the stars from our observation point?

    4.5 — 0.4 points

    What is the smallest aperture size for an optical telescope, \(D\), that can resolve these two stars?

    Official English text of the problem.