IPhO 2007 · Theory problem 2

Capacitive accelerometer for a car air bag

In this problem we deal with a simplified model of accelerometers designed to activate the safety air bags of automobiles during a collision. We would like to build an electromechanical system in such a way that when the acceleration exceeds a certain limit, one of the electrical parameters of the system such as the voltage at a certain point of the circuit will exceed a threshold and the air bag will be activated as a result.

Note: Ignore gravity in this problem.

1 Consider a capacitor with parallel plates as in Figure 1. The area of each plate in the capacitor is \(A\) and the distance between the two plates is \(d\). The distance between the two plates is much smaller than the dimensions of the plates. One of these plates is in contact with a wall through a spring with a spring constant \(k\), and the other plate is fixed. When the distance between the plates is \(d\) the spring is neither compressed nor stretched, in other words no force is exerted on the spring in this state. Assume that the permittivity of the air between the plates is that of free vacuum \(\varepsilon_0\). The capacitance corresponding to this distance between the plates of the capacitor is \(C_0=\varepsilon_0 A/d\). We put charges \(+Q\) and \(-Q\) on the plates and let the system achieve mechanical equilibrium.

Figure 1

Figure 1

Part Question Points
1.1 Calculate the electrical force, \(F_E\), exerted by the plates on each other. 0.8
1.2 Let \(x\) be the displacement of the plate connected to the spring. Find \(x\). 0.6
1.3 In this state, what is the electrical potential difference \(V\) between the plates of the capacitor in terms of \(Q\), \(A\), \(d\), \(k\)? 0.4
1.4 Let \(C\) be the capacitance of the capacitor, defined as the ratio of charge to potential difference. Find \(C/C_0\) as a function of \(Q\), \(A\), \(d\) and \(k\). 0.3
1.5 What is the total energy, \(U\), stored in the system in terms of \(Q\), \(A\), \(d\) and \(k\)? 0.6

Figure 2, shows a mass \(M\) which is attached to a conducting plate with negligible mass and also to two springs having identical spring constants \(k\). The conducting plate can move back and forth in the space between two fixed conducting plates. All these plates are similar and have the same area \(A\). Thus these three plates constitute two capacitors. As shown in Figure 2, the fixed plates are connected to the given potentials \(V\) and \(-V\), and the middle plate is connected through a two-state switch to the ground. The wire connected to the movable plate does not disturb the motion of the plate and the three plates will always remain parallel. When the whole complex is not being accelerated, the distance from each fixed plate to the movable plate is \(d\) which is much smaller than the dimensions of the plates. The thickness of the movable plate can be ignored.

Figure 2

Figure 2

The switch can be in either one of the two states \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\). Assume that the capacitor complex is being accelerated along with the automobile, and the acceleration is constant. Assume that during this constant acceleration the spring does not oscillate and all components of this complex capacitor are in their equilibrium positions, i.e. they do not move with respect to each other, and hence with respect to the automobile.

Due to the acceleration, the movable plate will be displaced a certain amount \(x\) from the middle of the two fixed plates.

2 Consider the case where the switch is in state \(\alpha\) i.e. the movable plate is connected to the ground through a wire, then

Part Question Points
2.1 Find the charge on each capacitor as a function of \(x\). 0.4
2.2 Find the net electrical force on the movable plate, \(F_E\), as a function of \(x\). 0.4
2.3 Assume \(d\gg x\) and terms of order \(x^2\) can be ignored compared to terms of order \(d^2\). Simplify the answer to the previous part. 0.2
2.4 Write the total force on the movable plate (the sum of the electrical and the spring forces) as \(-k_{\mathrm{eff}}x\) and give the form of \(k_{\mathrm{eff}}\). 0.7
2.5 Express the constant acceleration \(a\) as a function of \(x\). 0.4

3 Now assume that the switch is in state \(\beta\) i.e. the movable plate is connected to the ground through a capacitor, the capacitance of which is \(C_S\) (there is no initial charge on the capacitors). If the movable plate is displaced by an amount \(x\) from its central position,

Part Question Points
3.1 Find \(V_S\) the electrical potential difference across the capacitor \(C_S\) as a function of \(x\). 1.5
3.2 Again assume that \(d\gg x\) and ignore terms of order \(x^2\) compared to terms of order \(d^2\). Simplify your answer to the previous part. 0.2

4 We would like to adjust the parameters in the problem such that the air bag will not be activated in normal braking but opens fast enough during a collision to prevent the driver’s head from colliding with the windshield or the steering wheel. As you have seen in Part 2, the force exerted on the movable plate by the springs and the electrical charges can be represented as that of a spring with an effective spring constant \(k_{\mathrm{eff}}\). The whole capacitor complex is similar to a mass and spring system of mass \(M\) and spring constant \(k_{\mathrm{eff}}\) under the influence of a constant acceleration \(a\), which in this problem is the acceleration of the automobile.

Note: In this part of the problem, the assumption that the mass and spring are in equilibrium under a constant acceleration and hence are fixed relative to the automobile, no longer holds.

Ignore friction and consider the following numerical values for the parameters of the problem:

\[ \begin{gathered} d=1.0\,\mathrm{cm},\qquad A=2.5\times10^{-2}\,\mathrm{m^2},\qquad k=4.2\times10^3\,\mathrm{N/m},\\ \varepsilon_0=8.85\times10^{-12}\,\mathrm{C^2/(N\,m^2)},\qquad V=12\,\mathrm V,\qquad M=0.15\,\mathrm{kg}. \end{gathered} \]

Part Question Points
4.1 Using this data, find the ratio of the electrical force you calculated in section 2.3 to the force of the springs and show that one can ignore the electrical forces compared to the spring forces. 0.6

Although we did not calculate the electrical forces for the case when the switch is in the state \(\beta\), it can be shown that in this situation, quite similarly, the electrical forces are as small and can be ignored.

Part Question Points
4.2 If the automobile while traveling with a constant velocity, suddenly brakes with a constant acceleration \(a\), what is the maximum displacement of the movable plate? Give your answer in parameter. 0.6

Assume that the switch is in state \(\beta\) and the system has been designed such that when the electrical voltage across the capacitor reaches \(V_S=0.15\,\mathrm V\), the air bag is activated. We would like the air bag not to be activated during normal braking when the automobile’s acceleration is less than the acceleration of gravity \(g=9.8\,\mathrm{m/s^2}\), but be activated otherwise.

Part Question Points
4.3 How much should \(C_S\) be for this purpose? 0.6

We would like to find out if the air bag will be activated fast enough to prevent the driver’s head from hitting the windshield or the steering wheel. Assume that as a result of collision, the automobile experiences a deceleration equal to \(g\) but the driver’s head keeps moving at a constant speed.

Part Question Points
4.4 By estimating the distance between the driver’s head and the steering wheel, find the time \(t_1\) it takes before the driver’s head hits the steering wheel. 0.8
4.5 Find the time \(t_2\) before the air bag is activated and compare it to \(t_1\). Is the air bag activated in time? Assume that airbag opens instantaneously. 0.9

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

Take \(x>0\) towards the left fixed plate. In parts 2–4, this is the plate at \(+V\); take the automobile’s acceleration \(a>0\) in the opposite direction, as drawn. Force components are positive in the direction of positive \(x\), and \(V_S\) is the movable plate’s potential relative to ground. Write \(C_0=\varepsilon_0A/d\).

  • 1.1: \(\displaystyle F_E=\frac{Q^2}{2\varepsilon_0A}\), attractive.
  • 1.2: \(\displaystyle x=\frac{Q^2}{2k\varepsilon_0A}\), towards the fixed plate.
  • 1.3: \(\displaystyle V=\frac{Q}{\varepsilon_0A}\left(d-\frac{Q^2}{2k\varepsilon_0A}\right)\).
  • 1.4: \(\displaystyle \frac{C}{C_0}=\left(1-\frac{Q^2}{2k\varepsilon_0Ad}\right)^{-1}\).
  • 1.5: \(\displaystyle U=\frac{Q^2d}{2\varepsilon_0A}-\frac{Q^4}{8k\varepsilon_0^2A^2}\).
  • 2.1: Charge magnitudes: \(\displaystyle Q_L=\frac{\varepsilon_0AV}{d-x}\), \(\displaystyle Q_R=\frac{\varepsilon_0AV}{d+x}\). The corresponding charges on the movable plate are \(-Q_L\) and \(+Q_R\).
  • 2.2: \(\displaystyle F_E=\frac{\varepsilon_0AV^2}{2}\left[\frac{1}{(d-x)^2}-\frac{1}{(d+x)^2}\right]=\frac{2\varepsilon_0AV^2dx}{(d^2-x^2)^2}\).
  • 2.3: \(\displaystyle F_E\simeq\frac{2\varepsilon_0AV^2}{d^3}x\).
  • 2.4: \(\displaystyle F_{\mathrm{tot}}=-k_{\mathrm{eff}}x,\qquad k_{\mathrm{eff}}=2k-\frac{2\varepsilon_0AV^2}{d^3}\).
  • 2.5: \(\displaystyle a=\frac{k_{\mathrm{eff}}}{M}x=\frac{2}{M}\left(k-\frac{\varepsilon_0AV^2}{d^3}\right)x\), in the small-displacement approximation.
  • 3.1: \(\displaystyle V_S=\frac{2\varepsilon_0AVx}{2\varepsilon_0Ad+C_S(d^2-x^2)}\).
  • 3.2: \(\displaystyle V_S\simeq\frac{2C_0}{2C_0+C_S}\frac{Vx}{d}\).
  • 4.1: \(\displaystyle \frac{|F_E|}{|F_{\mathrm{springs}}|}=\frac{\varepsilon_0AV^2}{kd^3}=7.6\times10^{-9}\). Thus \(k_{\mathrm{eff}}\simeq2k\).
  • 4.2: \(\displaystyle x_{\max}=\frac{2Ma}{k_{\mathrm{eff}}}\simeq\frac{Ma}{k}\).
  • 4.3: \(\displaystyle C_S\simeq8.0\times10^{-11}\,\mathrm F=80\,\mathrm{pF}\).
  • 4.4: \(\displaystyle t_1=\sqrt{\frac{2L}{g}}\). Estimating the initial head-to-wheel distance as \(L=0.50\,\mathrm m\) gives \(\displaystyle t_1\simeq0.32\,\mathrm s\).
  • 4.5: \(\displaystyle t_2=\pi\sqrt{\frac{M}{2k}}\simeq1.3\times10^{-2}\,\mathrm s=13\,\mathrm{ms}\). Since \(t_2\ll t_1\), the air bag activates in time under the stated assumptions.

Solution

We neglect fringing fields throughout, as justified by the small plate separations compared with the plate dimensions.

1.1

The surface charge density is \(\sigma=Q/A\). A uniformly charged plate produces a field of magnitude \(\sigma/(2\varepsilon_0)\) at the other plate. A plate experiences force from the other plate’s field, so the attractive force has magnitude

\[ \boxed{F_E=Q\frac{\sigma}{2\varepsilon_0} =\frac{Q^2}{2\varepsilon_0A}.} \]

At fixed charge, this force is independent of the plate separation within the parallel-plate approximation.

1.2

Attraction moves the movable plate towards the fixed plate and stretches the spring by \(x\). Mechanical equilibrium requires

\[ kx=F_E. \]

Consequently,

\[ \boxed{x=\frac{Q^2}{2k\varepsilon_0A}.} \]

The separated-plate solution requires \(x<d\), or

\[ Q^2<2k\varepsilon_0Ad. \]

1.3

The electric field between the plates is

\[ E=\frac{\sigma}{\varepsilon_0} =\frac{Q}{\varepsilon_0A}. \]

Their equilibrium separation is \(d-x\), hence

\[ V=E(d-x). \]

Substituting the displacement gives

\[ \boxed{V=\frac{Q}{\varepsilon_0A} \left(d-\frac{Q^2}{2k\varepsilon_0A}\right).} \]

1.4

By the given definition,

\[ C=\frac{Q}{V}=\frac{\varepsilon_0A}{d-x}. \]

Since \(C_0=\varepsilon_0A/d\),

\[ \boxed{\frac{C}{C_0} =\frac{d}{d-x} =\left(1-\frac{Q^2}{2k\varepsilon_0Ad}\right)^{-1}.} \]

1.5

At equilibrium, the stored energy consists of the capacitor’s electric-field energy and the spring’s elastic energy:

\[ U=\frac{Q^2}{2C}+\frac12kx^2 =\frac{Q^2(d-x)}{2\varepsilon_0A}+\frac12kx^2. \]

Using \(x=Q^2/(2k\varepsilon_0A)\),

\[ \begin{aligned} U &=\frac{Q^2d}{2\varepsilon_0A} -\frac{Q^4}{4k\varepsilon_0^2A^2} +\frac{Q^4}{8k\varepsilon_0^2A^2}\\ &=\boxed{\frac{Q^2d}{2\varepsilon_0A} -\frac{Q^4}{8k\varepsilon_0^2A^2}}. \end{aligned} \]

2.1

With \(x\) positive towards the left plate, the left and right gaps are \(d-x\) and \(d+x\). Their capacitances are therefore

\[ C_L=\frac{\varepsilon_0A}{d-x}, \qquad C_R=\frac{\varepsilon_0A}{d+x}. \]

In switch position \(\alpha\), the movable plate is grounded. Each capacitor has voltage magnitude \(V\), giving

\[ \boxed{Q_L=C_LV=\frac{\varepsilon_0AV}{d-x}, \qquad Q_R=C_RV=\frac{\varepsilon_0AV}{d+x}.} \]

The left fixed plate carries \(+Q_L\), and the facing surface of the movable plate carries \(-Q_L\). The right fixed plate carries \(-Q_R\), and the facing surface of the movable plate carries \(+Q_R\).

2.2

Each fixed plate attracts the movable plate. The left attraction acts in the positive-\(x\) direction and the right attraction in the negative-\(x\) direction. Using the force from 1.1,

\[ F_E=\frac{Q_L^2-Q_R^2}{2\varepsilon_0A}. \]

Thus

\[ F_E=\frac{\varepsilon_0AV^2}{2} \left[\frac{1}{(d-x)^2}-\frac{1}{(d+x)^2}\right]. \]

Combining the fractions gives

\[ \boxed{F_E=\frac{2\varepsilon_0AV^2dx}{(d^2-x^2)^2}.} \]

The force has the same sign as \(x\): electrical attraction tends to increase the displacement towards the nearer plate.

2.3

Rewrite the exact result as

\[ F_E=\frac{2\varepsilon_0AV^2}{d^3}x \left(1-\frac{x^2}{d^2}\right)^{-2}. \]

For \(|x|\ll d\), neglecting \(x^2/d^2\) gives

\[ \boxed{F_E\simeq\frac{2\varepsilon_0AV^2}{d^3}x.} \]

2.4

Both springs exert restoring forces. One is compressed and the other stretched, and their total force is

\[ F_{\mathrm{springs}}=-2kx. \]

Adding the linearized electrical force,

\[ F_{\mathrm{tot}} =-2kx+\frac{2\varepsilon_0AV^2}{d^3}x =-k_{\mathrm{eff}}x. \]

Therefore,

\[ \boxed{k_{\mathrm{eff}} =2k-\frac{2\varepsilon_0AV^2}{d^3}.} \]

The electrical interaction reduces the restoring stiffness. A stable small-displacement response requires \(k_{\mathrm{eff}}>0\).

2.5

The automobile accelerates opposite to positive \(x\). In the automobile frame, the inertial force on the mass is therefore \(+Ma\). Relative equilibrium requires

\[ -k_{\mathrm{eff}}x+Ma=0. \]

Hence

\[ \boxed{a=\frac{k_{\mathrm{eff}}x}{M} =\frac{2}{M}\left(k-\frac{\varepsilon_0AV^2}{d^3}\right)x.} \]

This expression uses the small-displacement approximation introduced in 2.3.

3.1

In position \(\beta\), the movable plate, its connecting wire, and the connected plate of \(C_S\) form an isolated conductor. Its initially zero total charge remains zero.

Let its potential relative to ground be \(V_S\). The charges on its three capacitor surfaces are

\[ q_L=C_L(V_S-V),\qquad q_R=C_R(V_S+V),\qquad q_S=C_SV_S. \]

Charge conservation gives

\[ C_L(V_S-V)+C_R(V_S+V)+C_SV_S=0. \]

Therefore,

\[ V_S=\frac{V(C_L-C_R)}{C_L+C_R+C_S}. \]

Now

\[ C_L-C_R=\frac{2\varepsilon_0Ax}{d^2-x^2}, \qquad C_L+C_R=\frac{2\varepsilon_0Ad}{d^2-x^2}. \]

Substitution yields

\[ \boxed{V_S= \frac{2\varepsilon_0AVx} {2\varepsilon_0Ad+C_S(d^2-x^2)}.} \]

In particular, \(V_S=0\) at the central position and \(V_S>0\) for displacement towards the \(+V\) plate.

3.2

Neglect \(x^2\) compared with \(d^2\) in the denominator:

\[ V_S\simeq \frac{2\varepsilon_0AVx} {2\varepsilon_0Ad+C_Sd^2}. \]

Using \(C_0=\varepsilon_0A/d\),

\[ \boxed{V_S\simeq \frac{2C_0}{2C_0+C_S}\frac{Vx}{d}.} \]

Thus the measured voltage is proportional to displacement in this approximation.

4.1

The electrical and spring forces oppose each other. Their magnitude ratio is

\[ \frac{|F_E|}{|F_{\mathrm{springs}}|} =\frac{(2\varepsilon_0AV^2/d^3)|x|}{2k|x|} =\frac{\varepsilon_0AV^2}{kd^3}. \]

With \(d=1.0\times10^{-2}\,\mathrm m\),

\[ \frac{|F_E|}{|F_{\mathrm{springs}}|} = \frac{(8.85\times10^{-12})(2.5\times10^{-2})(12)^2} {(4.2\times10^3)(1.0\times10^{-2})^3} =\boxed{7.6\times10^{-9}}. \]

The electrical contribution is negligible, so

\[ \boxed{k_{\mathrm{eff}}\simeq2k=8.4\times10^3\,\mathrm{N/m}.} \]

As permitted by the statement, we also neglect electrical forces in position \(\beta\).

4.2

Before braking, the mass is at the centre and at rest relative to the automobile:

\[ x(0)=0,\qquad \dot x(0)=0. \]

After the sudden onset of constant acceleration, its equation of motion in the automobile frame is

\[ M\ddot x+k_{\mathrm{eff}}x=Ma. \]

Define

\[ \omega=\sqrt{\frac{k_{\mathrm{eff}}}{M}}, \qquad x_{\mathrm{eq}}=\frac{Ma}{k_{\mathrm{eff}}}. \]

The solution satisfying the initial conditions is

\[ x(t)=x_{\mathrm{eq}}(1-\cos\omega t). \]

The first maximum occurs at \(\omega t=\pi\), giving

\[ \boxed{x_{\max}=2x_{\mathrm{eq}} =\frac{2Ma}{k_{\mathrm{eff}}} \simeq\frac{Ma}{k}.} \]

The maximum displacement is twice the static equilibrium displacement because the undamped mass overshoots its new equilibrium position.

4.3

Let the trigger voltage be

\[ V_{\mathrm{th}}=0.15\,\mathrm V. \]

To put the activation boundary at \(a=g\), the maximum voltage during a constant acceleration \(g\) must equal \(V_{\mathrm{th}}\).

The corresponding maximum displacement is

\[ x_g=\frac{Mg}{k} =\frac{(0.15)(9.8)}{4.2\times10^3} =3.5\times10^{-4}\,\mathrm m. \]

Thus

\[ \frac{x_g}{d}=0.035, \]

which supports the small-displacement approximation.

From 3.2,

\[ V_{\mathrm{th}} =\frac{2C_0}{2C_0+C_S}\frac{Vx_g}{d}. \]

Solving for the required capacitance,

\[ C_S=2C_0\left(\frac{Vx_g}{dV_{\mathrm{th}}}-1\right) =2C_0\left(\frac{VMg}{kdV_{\mathrm{th}}}-1\right). \]

Here,

\[ C_0=\frac{\varepsilon_0A}{d} =2.2125\times10^{-11}\,\mathrm F =22.125\,\mathrm{pF}, \]

and

\[ \frac{Vx_g}{d}=(12)(0.035)=0.42\,\mathrm V. \]

Consequently,

\[ C_S =2(22.125\,\mathrm{pF}) \left(\frac{0.42}{0.15}-1\right) =79.65\,\mathrm{pF}. \]

To the precision of the data,

\[ \boxed{C_S\simeq80\,\mathrm{pF} =8.0\times10^{-11}\,\mathrm F.} \]

For this constant-acceleration braking model, the maximum voltage is proportional to \(a\), so accelerations below \(g\) do not reach the threshold, while those at or above \(g\) do.

For comparison, retaining the exact geometry from 3.1 gives

\[ C_{S,\mathrm{exact}} = \frac{2\varepsilon_0A\left(Vx_g/V_{\mathrm{th}}-d\right)} {d^2-x_g^2} =79.75\,\mathrm{pF}, \]

which has the same rounded value.

4.4

Let \(L\) be the initial distance between the driver’s head and the steering wheel along the direction of motion.

Initially they have the same velocity. The head continues at constant velocity, while the steering wheel decelerates with the automobile at magnitude \(g\). Their relative acceleration therefore has magnitude \(g\), and the distance closed after time \(t\) is

\[ s_{\mathrm{rel}}=\frac12gt^2. \]

Impact occurs when this equals \(L\):

\[ \boxed{t_1=\sqrt{\frac{2L}{g}}.} \]

Taking a reasonable estimate \(L=0.50\,\mathrm m\),

\[ t_1=\sqrt{\frac{2(0.50)}{9.8}} =0.319\,\mathrm s \simeq\boxed{0.32\,\mathrm s}. \]

4.5

At \(a=g\), the capacitor was chosen so that the trigger voltage is reached at the maximum displacement \(x_g\). The motion is

\[ x(t)=\frac{Mg}{2k}(1-\cos\omega t), \qquad \omega=\sqrt{\frac{2k}{M}}. \]

Since \(x_g=Mg/k\), the first trigger occurs when

\[ 1-\cos\omega t_2=2, \]

or

\[ \omega t_2=\pi. \]

Therefore,

\[ \boxed{t_2=\pi\sqrt{\frac{M}{2k}}.} \]

Numerically,

\[ t_2=\pi\sqrt{\frac{0.15}{8.4\times10^3}} =0.01328\,\mathrm s \simeq\boxed{13\,\mathrm{ms}}. \]

Comparing with the estimated head-impact time,

\[ \frac{t_2}{t_1}\simeq0.042. \]

The head closes only

\[ \frac12gt_2^2\simeq8.6\times10^{-4}\,\mathrm m =0.86\,\mathrm{mm} \]

before activation. Thus the air bag activates well before the head reaches the steering wheel, assuming instantaneous opening as stipulated.

The solution was checked against the official solution.