International Physics Olympiad

IPhO 2005

Salamanca, Spain · 3 theory problems with complete solutions

  1. Problem 1: An Ill Fated Satellite

    Th 1 AN ILL FATED SATELLITE

    The most frequent orbital manoeuvres performed by spacecraft consist of velocity variations along the direction of flight, namely accelerations to reach higher orbits or brakings done to initiate re-entering in the atmosphere. In this problem we will study the orbital variations when the engine thrust is applied in a radial direction.

    To obtain numerical values use: Earth radius \(R_T=6.37\cdot10^6\ \mathrm{m}\), Earth surface gravity \(g=9.81\ \mathrm{m/s^2}\), and take the length of the sidereal day to be \(T_0=24.0\ \mathrm{h}\).

    We consider a geosynchronous\(^{1}\) communications satellite of mass \(m\) placed in an equatorial circular orbit of radius \(r_0\). These satellites have an “apogee engine” which provides the tangential thrusts needed to reach the final orbit.

    Figure 1

    Image: ESA

    Marks are indicated at the beginning of each subquestion, in parenthesis.

    Question 1

    1.1 (0.3) Compute the numerical value of \(r_0\).

    1.2 (0.3+0.1) Give the analytical expression of the velocity \(v_0\) of the satellite as a function of \(g\), \(R_T\), and \(r_0\), and calculate its numerical value.

    1.3 (0.4+0.4) Obtain the expressions of its angular momentum \(L_0\) and mechanical energy \(E_0\), as functions of \(v_0\), \(m\), \(g\) and \(R_T\).

    Once this geosynchronous circular orbit has been reached (see Figure F-1), the satellite has been stabilised in the desired location, and is being readied to do its work, an error by the ground controllers causes the apogee engine to be fired again. The thrust happens to be directed towards the Earth and, despite the quick reaction of the ground crew to shut the engine off, an unwanted velocity variation \(\Delta v\) is imparted on the satellite. We characterize this boost by the parameter \(\beta=\Delta v/v_0\). The duration of the engine burn is always negligible with respect to any other orbital times, so that it can be considered as instantaneous.

    Figure 2

    F-1

    Question 2

    Suppose \(\beta<1\).

    2.1 (0.4+0.5) Determine the parameters of the new orbit\(^{2}\), semi-latus-rectum \(l\) and eccentricity \(\varepsilon\), in terms of \(r_0\) and \(\beta\).

    2.2 (1.0) Calculate the angle \(\alpha\) between the major axis of the new orbit and the position vector at the accidental misfire.

    2.3 (1.0+0.2) Give the analytical expressions of the perigee \(r_{\min}\) and apogee \(r_{\max}\) distances to the Earth centre, as functions of \(r_0\) and \(\beta\), and calculate their numerical values for \(\beta=1/4\).

    2.4 (0.5+0.2) Determine the period of the new orbit, \(T\), as a function of \(T_0\) and \(\beta\), and calculate its numerical value for \(\beta=1/4\).

    \(^{1}\) Its revolution period is \(T_0\).

    \(^{2}\) See the “hint”.

    Question 3

    3.1 (0.5) Calculate the minimum boost parameter, \(\beta_{\mathrm{esc}}\), needed for the satellite to escape Earth gravity.

    3.2 (1.0) Determine in this case the closest approach of the satellite to the Earth centre in the new trajectory, \(r'_{\min}\), as a function of \(r_0\).

    Question 4

    Suppose \(\beta>\beta_{\mathrm{esc}}\).

    4.1 (1.0) Determine the residual velocity at the infinity, \(v_\infty\), as a function of \(v_0\) and \(\beta\).

    4.2 (1.0) Obtain the “impact parameter” \(b\) of the asymptotic escape direction in terms of \(r_0\) and \(\beta\). (See Figure F-2).

    4.3 (1.0+0.2) Determine the angle \(\phi\) of the asymptotic escape direction in terms of \(\beta\). Calculate its numerical value for \(\beta=\dfrac{3}{2}\beta_{\mathrm{esc}}\).

    Figure 3

    F-2

    HINT

    Under the action of central forces obeying the inverse-square law, bodies follow trajectories described by ellipses, parabolas or hyperbolas. In the approximation \(m\ll M\) the gravitating mass \(M\) is at one of the focuses. Taking the origin at this focus, the general polar equation of these curves can be written as (see Figure F-3)

    \[ r(\theta)=\frac{l}{1-\varepsilon\cos\theta} \]

    Figure 4

    F-3

    where \(l\) is a positive constant named the semi-latus-rectum and \(\varepsilon\) is the eccentricity of the curve. In terms of constants of motion:

    \[ l=\frac{L^2}{GMm^2} \qquad\text{and}\qquad \varepsilon= \left(1+\frac{2EL^2}{G^2M^2m^3}\right)^{1/2} \]

    where \(G\) is the Newton constant, \(L\) is the modulus of the angular momentum of the orbiting mass, with respect to the origin, and \(E\) is its mechanical energy, with zero potential energy at infinity.

    We may have the following cases:

    i) If \(0\leq\varepsilon<1\), the curve is an ellipse (circumference for \(\varepsilon=0\)).

    ii) If \(\varepsilon=1\), the curve is a parabola.

    iii) If \(\varepsilon>1\), the curve is a hyperbola.

    Official English text of the problem.

  2. Problem 2: Absolute Measurements of Electrical Quantities

    Th 2 ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENTS OF ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

    The technological and scientific transformations underwent during the XIX century produced a compelling need of universally accepted standards for the electrical quantities. It was thought the new absolute units should only rely on the standards of length, mass and time established after the French Revolution. An intensive experimental work to settle the values of these units was developed from 1861 until 1912. We propose here three case studies.

    Marks are indicated at the beginning of each subquestion, in parenthesis.

    Determination of the ohm (Kelvin)

    A closed circular coil of \(N\) turns, radius \(a\) and total resistance \(R\) is rotated with uniform angular velocity \(\omega\) about a vertical diameter in a horizontal magnetic field \(\vec B_0=B_0\vec i\).

    1. (0.5+1.0) Compute the electromotive force \(\mathcal E\) induced in the coil, and also the mean power\({}^{1}\) \(\langle P\rangle\) required for maintaining the coil in motion. Neglect the coil self inductance.

    A small magnetic needle is placed at the center of the coil, as shown in Figure F-1. It is free to turn slowly around the Z axis in a horizontal plane, but it cannot follow the rapid rotation of the coil.

    Figure 1

    F-1

    2. (2.0) Once the stationary regime is reached, the needle will set at a direction making a small angle \(\theta\) with \(\vec B_0\). Compute the resistance \(R\) of the coil in terms of this angle and the other parameters of the system.

    Lord Kelvin used this method in the 1860s to set the absolute standard for the ohm. To avoid the rotating coil, Lorenz devised an alternative method used by Lord Rayleigh and Ms. Sidgwick, that we analyze in the next paragraphs.

    Determination of the ohm (Rayleigh, Sidgwick).

    The experimental setup is shown in Figure F-2. It consists of two identical metal disks D and D' of radius \(b\) mounted on the conducting shaft SS'. A motor rotates the set at an angular velocity \(\omega\), which can be adjusted for measuring \(R\). Two identical coils C and C' (of radius \(a\) and with \(N\) turns each) surround the disks. They are connected in such a form that the current \(I\) flows through them in opposite directions. The whole apparatus serves to measure the resistance \(R\).

    Figure 2

    F-2

    \({}^{1}\) The mean value \(\langle X\rangle\) of a quantity \(X(t)\) in a periodic system of period \(T\) is \[ \langle X\rangle=\frac{1}{T}\int_0^T X(t)\,dt. \]

    You may need one or more of these integrals: \[ \int_0^{2\pi}\sin x\,dx =\int_0^{2\pi}\cos x\,dx =\int_0^{2\pi}\sin x\cos x\,dx=0, \] \[ \int_0^{2\pi}\sin^2x\,dx =\int_0^{2\pi}\cos^2x\,dx=\pi, \qquad \text{and later}\qquad \int x^n\,dx=\frac{1}{n+1}x^{n+1}. \]

    3. (2.0) Assume that the current \(I\) flowing through the coils C and C' creates a uniform magnetic field \(B\) around D and D', equal to the one at the centre of the coil. Compute\({}^{1}\) the electromotive force \(\mathcal E\) induced between the rims 1 and 4, assuming that the distance between the coils is much larger than the radius of the coils and that \(a\gg b\).

    The disks are connected to the circuit by brush contacts at their rims 1 and 4. The galvanometer G detects the flow of current through the circuit 1-2-3-4.

    4. (0.5) The resistance \(R\) is measured when G reads zero. Give \(R\) in terms of the physical parameters of the system.

    Determination of the ampere

    Passing a current through two conductors and measuring the force between them provides an absolute determination of the current itself. The “Current Balance” designed by Lord Kelvin in 1882 exploits this method. It consists of six identical single turn coils \(C_1\ldots C_6\) of radius \(a\), connected in series. As shown in Figure F-3, the fixed coils \(C_1\), \(C_3\), \(C_4\), and \(C_6\) are on two horizontal planes separated by a small distance \(2h\). The coils \(C_2\) and \(C_5\) are carried on balance arms of length \(d\), and they are, in equilibrium, equidistant from both planes.

    The current \(I\) flows through the various coils in such a direction that the magnetic force on \(C_2\) is upwards while that on \(C_5\) is downwards. A mass \(m\) at a distance \(x\) from the fulcrum O is required to restore the balance to the equilibrium position described above when the current flows through the circuit.

    Figure 3

    F-3

    5. (1.0) Compute the force \(F\) on \(C_2\) due to the magnetic interaction with \(C_1\). For simplicity assume that the force per unit length is the one corresponding to two long, straight wires carrying parallel currents.

    6. (1.0) The current \(I\) is measured when the balance is in equilibrium. Give the value of \(I\) in terms of the physical parameters of the system. The dimensions of the apparatus are such that we can neglect the mutual effects of the coils on the left and on the right.

    Let \(M\) be the mass of the balance (except for \(m\) and the hanging parts), G its centre of mass and \(l\) the distance \(\overline{OG}\).

    7. (2.0) The balance equilibrium is stable against deviations producing small changes \(\delta z\) in the height of \(C_2\) and \(-\delta z\) in \(C_5\). Compute\({}^{2}\) the maximum value \(\delta z_{\max}\) so that the balance still returns towards the equilibrium position when it is released.

    \({}^{2}\) Consider that the coils centres remain approximately aligned.

    Use the approximations \[ \frac{1}{1\pm\beta}\approx1\mp\beta+\beta^2 \qquad\text{or}\qquad \frac{1}{1\pm\beta^2}\approx1\mp\beta^2 \] for \(\beta\ll1\), and \(\sin\theta\approx\tan\theta\) for small \(\theta\).

    Official English text of the problem.

  3. Problem 3: Neutrons in a Gravitational Field

    Th 3 NEUTRONS IN A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

    In the familiar classical world, an elastic bouncing ball on the Earth’s surface is an ideal example for perpetual motion. The ball is trapped: it can not go below the surface or above its turning point. It will remain bounded in this state, turning down and bouncing up once and again, forever. Only air drag or inelastic bounces could stop the process and will be ignored in the following.

    A group of physicists from the Institute Laue - Langevin in Grenoble reported\(^{1}\) in 2002 experimental evidence on the behaviour of neutrons in the gravitational field of the Earth. In the experiment, neutrons moving to the right were allowed to fall towards a horizontal crystal surface acting as a neutron mirror, where they bounced back elastically up to the initial height once and again.

    The setup of the experiment is sketched in Figure F-1. It consists of the opening W, the neutron mirror M (at height \(z = 0\)), the neutron absorber A (at height \(z = H\) and with length \(L\)) and the neutron detector D. The beam of neutrons flies with constant horizontal velocity component \(v_x\) from W to D through the cavity between A and M. All the neutrons that reach the surface of A are absorbed and disappear from the experiment. Those that reach the surface of M are reflected elastically. The detector D counts the transmission rate \(N(H)\), that is, the total number of neutrons that reach D per unit time.

    Figure 1

    F-1

    Marks are indicated at the beginning of each subquestion, in parenthesis.

    The neutrons enter the cavity with a wide range of positive and negative vertical velocities, \(v_z\). Once in the cavity, they fly between the mirror below and the absorber above.

    1. (1.5) Compute classically the range of vertical velocities \(v_z(z)\) of the neutrons that, entering at a height \(z\), can arrive at the detector D. Assume that \(L\) is much larger than any other length in the problem.

    2. (1.5) Calculate classically the minimum length \(L_c\) of the cavity to ensure that all neutrons outside the previous velocity range, regardless of the values of \(z\), are absorbed by A. Use \(v_x = 10\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\) and \(H = 50\ \mu\mathrm{m}\).

    The neutron transmission rate \(N(H)\) is measured at D. We expect that it increases monotonically with \(H\).

    1. (2.5) Compute the classical rate \(N_c(H)\) assuming that neutrons arrive at the cavity with vertical velocity \(v_z\) and at height \(z\), being all the values of \(v_z\) and \(z\) equally probable. Give the answer in terms of \(\rho\), the constant number of neutrons per unit time, per unit vertical velocity, per unit height, that enter the cavity with vertical velocity \(v_z\) and at height \(z\).

    \(^{1}\) V. V. Nesvizhevsky et al. “Quantum states of neutrons in the Earth’s gravitational field.” Nature, 415 (2002) 297. Phys Rev D 67, 102002 (2003).

    The experimental results obtained by the Grenoble group disagree with the above classical predictions, showing instead that the value of \(N(H)\) experiences sharp increases when \(H\) crosses some critical heights \(H_1\), \(H_2\) ... (Figure F-2 shows a sketch). In other words, the experiment showed that the vertical motion of neutrons bouncing on the mirror is quantized. In the language that Bohr and Sommerfeld used to obtain the energy levels of the hydrogen atom, this can be written as: “The action \(S\) of these neutrons along the vertical direction is an integer multiple of the Planck action constant \(h\)”. Here \(S\) is given by

    \[ S=\int p_z(z)\,dz=nh,\qquad n=1,2,3\ldots \qquad\text{(Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization rule)} \]

    where \(p_z\) is the vertical component of the classical momentum, and the integral covers a whole bouncing cycle. Only neutrons with these values of \(S\) are allowed in the cavity.

    Figure 2

    F-2

    1. (2.5) Compute the turning heights \(H_n\) and energy levels \(E_n\) (associated to the vertical motion) using the Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization condition. Give the numerical result for \(H_1\) in \(\mu\mathrm{m}\) and for \(E_1\) in eV.

    The uniform initial distribution \(\rho\) of neutrons at the entrance changes, during the flight through a long cavity, into the step-like distribution detected at D (see Figure F-2). From now on, we consider for simplicity the case of a long cavity with \(H < H_2\). Classically, all neutrons with energies in the range considered in question 1 were allowed through it, while quantum mechanically only neutrons in the energy level \(E_1\) are permitted. According to the time-energy Heisenberg uncertainty principle, this reshuffling requires a minimum time of flight. The uncertainty of the vertical motion energy will be significant if the cavity length is small. This phenomenon will give rise to the widening of the energy levels.

    1. (2.0) Estimate the minimum time of flight \(t_q\) and the minimum length \(L_q\) of the cavity needed to observe the first sharp increase in the number of neutrons at D. Use \(v_x = 10\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\).

    Data:

    Quantity Value
    Planck action constant \(h = 6.63\cdot10^{-34}\ \mathrm{J\,s}\)
    Speed of light in vacuum \(c = 3.00\cdot10^8\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\)
    Elementary charge \(e = 1.60\cdot10^{-19}\ \mathrm{C}\)
    Neutron mass \(M = 1.67\cdot10^{-27}\ \mathrm{kg}\)
    Acceleration of gravity on Earth \(g = 9.81\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-2}}\)

    If necessary, use the expression:

    \[ \int(1-x)^{1/2}\,dx=-\frac{2(1-x)^{3/2}}{3} \]

    Official English text of the problem.