International Chemistry Olympiad

IChO 2023

Zurich, Switzerland · 10 theory problems with complete solutions

  1. Problem 1: Molecular Imaging

    Molecular imaging is a powerful tool in medical diagnostics. The nuclear isomer \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\) (m = metastable) of the isotope \(\ce{^{99g}Tc}\) (g = ground state) has excellent radiation properties (\(\gamma\)-emitter, \(t_{1/2}=6.015\ \mathrm{h}\)) for radioimaging. \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\) is obtained by \(\beta^-\) decay of a mother nuclide in a so-called technetium generator as \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\)-pertechnetate \(\ce{[^{99m}TcO4]^-}\).

    1.1 Identify the mother nuclide (A) of \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\) and the emitted particle (B).

    Figure 1

    1.2 Provide the oxidation states of the radiometal in the following \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\)-probes.

    Figure 2
    Figure 3

    The redox potentials of the group seven elements manganese (\(\ce{Mn}\)), technetium (\(\ce{Tc}\)) and rhenium (\(\ce{Re}\)) follow the general trend in the periodic tables (see Figure 2 below).

    Figure 4

    Figure 2

    1.3 Calculate the two missing redox potentials i and ii.

    1.4 Compare \(\ce{[MnO4]^-}\), \(\ce{[TcO4]^-}\) and \(\ce{[ReO4]^-}\). Chose the strongest oxidizing agent.

    1.5 Based on the values indicated by Figure 2 in the question sheet, select if \(\ce{TcO2}\) would disproportionate to \(\ce{Tc}\) and \(\ce{TcO4^2-}\) under acidic conditions.

    \(\ce{Tc}\) and \(\ce{Re}\) complexes at the oxidation state +V (\(d^2\) systems) which contain a terminal oxo- (\(\ce{O=}\)) or nitrido ligand (\(\ce{N#}\)) are diamagnetic. The scheme below shows three possible molecular orbital energy diagrams.

    1.6 Choose which orbital energy diagram explains the observed diamagnetism. Draw the corresponding electron configuration in the correct diagram.

    Figure 5

    \(\ce{((C4H9)4N)[^{99g}TcO4]}\) is a colorless powder. By the addition of conc. \(\ce{HCl}\) this common starting compound for \(\ce{^{99g}Tc}\) chemistry is converted into the green complex \(\ce{((C4H9)4N)[^{99g}TcOCl4]}\).

    1.7 Write down both oxidation and reduction half-reactions using the formulas of ions or neutral molecules, and the complete redox reaction.

    All \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\) radiotracers in clinics are prepared in “one pot” reactions, applying commercialized kits. Typically (\(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\) \(t_{1/2}=6.015\ \mathrm{h}\)), an eluate of a \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\) generator has an activity of 12.5 GBq (GBq = gigabecquerel = \(10^9\) decays per second).

    1.8 Calculate how many moles of \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\) are present in such samples.

    For standard imaging, around 200 MBq \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\) are administered to the patient.

    1.9 Assume that no activity is lost through excretion. Calculate how many hours the patient has to wait until the injected activity decreases to under 1 % of the starting activity.

    Bioconjugation of radiometals is a chemical challenge. A recent example is the (3 + 2) cycloaddition of \(\ce{[^{99m}TcO3(tacn)]+}\) (A) (tacn = 1,4,7-triazacyclononane) with alkenes. In this context (3 + 2) refers to the number of atoms involved and not to the numbers of electrons. The following scheme shows an example of this reaction by labeling a protected carbohydrate.

    Figure 6

    1.10 Draw the structures of compound A and B. Further, state the oxidation state of the technetium in these compounds.

    Official English text of the problem.

  2. Problem 2: Electrochemical CO2 Reduction

    Electrochemical \(\ce{CO2}\) reduction

    In recent years, the electrochemical conversion of \(\ce{CO2}\) into higher value products has been considered a promising and technologically feasible approach to mitigate the negative climatic effects caused by its increasing levels in the atmosphere. Several technologies have been developed to achieve this goal. Among these, \(\ce{CO2}\) reduction through electrochemical means (\(\ce{CO2}\)RR) warrants particular attention due to its ability to be powered by renewable energy to transform environmentally harmful \(\ce{CO2}\) into platform chemicals. Electrocatalysts are essential not only to accelerate the intrinsically slow \(\ce{CO2}\)RR but also to direct the electrolysis reaction towards the desired reaction products. In this context, it is not only the chemical nature of the catalyst itself which governs the resulting \(\ce{CO2}\)RR product distribution but also its morphological characteristics on various length scales. A new concept of \(\ce{CO2}\)RR catalyst design relies on the electrodeposition of foam-type materials, which offer a large surface area that is accessible to reactants (e.g. \(\ce{H2O}\), \(\ce{H2}\), and \(\ce{CO2}\)). Copper-based materials are the only known metallic \(\ce{CO2}\)RR catalysts that can produce hydrocarbons and alcohols in significant amounts by \(\ce{CO2}\) electrolysis.

    Given below are thermodynamic data of selected substances:

    \(\Delta_\mathrm{f}H^\ominus\) (\(\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)) \(S^\ominus\) (\(\mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}\))
    \(\ce{H2O(l)}\) −285.83 69.95
    \(\ce{O2(g)}\) 0 205.15
    \(\ce{H2(g)}\) 0 130.68
    \(\ce{CO2(g)}\) −393.52 213.79
    ethanol(l) −276.00 159.86
    n-propanol(l) −302.54 192.80

    Table 1. Standard formation enthalpy \(\Delta_\mathrm{f}H^\ominus\) and standard entropy \(S^\ominus\) for some substances under standard conditions (\(T=298.15\ \mathrm{K}\), \(p^\ominus=1\ \mathrm{bar}\))

    Cell reaction \(E^\ominus\) vs. SHE (V)
    \(\ce{Cu^2+ + 2e- = Cu}\) +0.34
    \(\ce{2H+ + 2e- = H2}\) 0.00

    Table 2. Selected half-cell reactions and standard potentials under standard conditions

    2.1 Write and balance the chemical equation of the half-cell reactions for the following electrochemical reduction processes in acidic environment: (i) \(\ce{CO2}\) to ethanol; (ii) \(\ce{CO2}\) to n-propanol.

    2.2 Combine the half-cell of the reduction process with an \(\ce{H2}/\ce{2H+}\) half-cell where the latter acts as anode. Calculate the value of the standard cell potential of the \(\ce{CO2}\) to ethanol reduction.

    2.3 Write all the reduction and oxidation half-cell reactions taking place at the cathode and the anode, respectively.

    Figure 1 shows the principle of dynamic hydrogen bubble-templated metal deposition.

    Figure 2 displays top-down scanning electron microscopy images of five different \(\ce{Cu}\) foams obtained upon interruption of the metal deposition at different times: 5 s, 20 s, 80 s.

    \(\ce{Cu}\) foam electrodeposition processes (see Figure 1) were carried out in an aqueous 1.5 M sulfuric acid solution containing 0.2 M copper sulfate (\(\ce{CuSO4 * 5H2O}\)) as the copper source. A \(\ce{Cu}\) disk (\(1\ \mathrm{cm^2}\)) and a \(\ce{Pt}\) foil served as the cathode and the anode, respectively.

    Figure 1

    Figure 1. Depiction of the electrodeposition of foam-type materials. In the course of electrochemical metal deposition (black arrows) at high current densities in aqueous media, the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) takes place on the metallic (\(\ce{Cu}\)) support (1). The surface becomes thus partially covered by \(\ce{H2}\) bubbles (2). The \(\ce{H2}\) bubbles act as a template for metal deposition (3). As a result a highly porous metal foam emerges (4)

    Figure 2

    Figure 2. \(\ce{Cu}\) foams obtained by galvanostatic \(\ce{Cu}\) electrodeposition at a current density of \(j=-3\ \mathrm{A\,cm^{-2}}\). The deposition was, in each case, interrupted at distinct elapsed duration: 5 s, 20 s and 80 s. The scale bar is the same in all panels

    2.4 Considering this mechanism, assign the correct deposition time to the \(\ce{Cu}\) foams shown in Figure 2 on the answer sheet (white boxes upper left corner).

    Bimetallic \(\ce{CuAg}\) systems are excellent catalysts for the electrosynthesis of alcohols from \(\ce{CO2}\). 5.4 mg of a bimetallic \(\ce{Cu}\)-\(\ce{Ag}\) foam catalyst (90 wt. % \(\ce{Cu}\), \(M_{\ce{Cu}}=63.546\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\); 10 wt. % \(\ce{Ag}\), \(M_{\ce{Ag}}=107.868\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\)) was galvanostatically deposited onto a \(\ce{Cu}\) foil (\(1\ \mathrm{cm^2}\)) at a current density of \(j=-3\ \mathrm{A\,cm^{-2}}\) applied for 20 s (the minus sign accounts for a reductive/cathodic process).

    2.5 Calculate the Faradaic efficiency (FE in %) of this metal deposition process. FE is defined as \((Q_\mathrm{product}/Q_\mathrm{total})\times100\%\), where \(Q\) denotes the charge.

    We consider a \(\ce{CO2}\) electrolysis experiment carried out in 35 mL \(\ce{CO2}\)-saturated 0.5 M \(\ce{KHCO3}\) electrolyte solution over the bimetallic \(\ce{Cu}\)-\(\ce{Ag}\) foam catalyst (90 wt. % \(\ce{Cu}\); 10 wt. % \(\ce{Ag}\)). The \(\ce{CO2}\) electrolysis was carried out at a constant (total) current density of \(j(\mathrm{tot})=-30\ \mathrm{mA\,cm^{-2}}\) for 3600 s (note the current density is normalized to the geometric surface area of \(1\ \mathrm{cm^2}\); the minus sign accounts for a reductive/cathodic process). A product analysis, carried out after the electrolysis, revealed mass concentrations of \(41.3\ \mathrm{mg\,L^{-1}}\) and \(7.4\ \mathrm{mg\,L^{-1}}\) for ethanol and n-propanol, respectively. Both alcohols are liquid reaction products and accumulate in the electrolyte in the course of the electrolysis reaction. We assume that gaseous hydrogen (\(\ce{H2}\)) is formed as the only by-product of the process.

    2.6 Calculate the current densities required for the formation of (a) ethanol (\(M_\mathrm{EtOH}=46.08\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\)) and (b) n-propanol (\(M_\mathrm{PrOH}=60.10\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\)) assuming that the current densities do not change with electrolysis time.

    2.7 Calculate the volume of the formed hydrogen on the \(1\ \mathrm{cm^2}\) catalyst area at 298.15 K and 1 bar, assuming ideal behavior of the formed hydrogen, and its complete release into the gas phase. If you did not get a result in Task 2.6, continue with FE(EtOH) = 45,1 % and FE(PrOH) = 4.8 %.

    Official English text of the problem.

  3. Problem 3: Artificial Photosynthesis

    The field of artificial photosynthesis research aims at storing solar energy in chemical bonds. Photons are absorbed by exciting sensitizers, thereby producing a charge-separated state. The excited electron is transferred to a catalyst (hydrogen evolving catalyst, HEC), which is reduced twice and then produces \(\ce{H2}\). The photosensitizer or light absorber is often \(\ce{[Ru(bpy)3]^2+}\) (bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine), and the HECs are often cobalt complexes.

    Energetics of Water Splitting

    3.1 Calculate the enthalpy of the reaction \(\ce{H2 -> 2H+(aq) + 2e-}\).

    Solvation enthalpy of proton: \(\Delta_{\mathrm{aq}}H(\ce{H+})=-1190\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)

    Ionization energy of hydrogen: \(IE_1=13.6\ \mathrm{eV}\)

    Dissociation enthalpy of \(\ce{H2}\): \(\Delta_{\mathrm{diss}}H(\ce{H2})=432\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)

    Ideally, electrochemical water splitting into \(\ce{O2}\) and \(\ce{H2}\) runs at 1.23 V. Since \(T\Delta S\) for this process is positive, heat from the environment is needed. If additional voltage produces the heat required to compensate the decrease in temperature the process is called thermoneutral. The enthalpy of \(\ce{H2O}\) formation, \(\Delta_{\mathrm f}H^\circ(\ce{H2O})\), is \(-285\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\).

    3.2 Calculate (a) the water splitting reaction entropy \(\Delta_{\mathrm r}S^\circ\) at 25 °C of 1 mol of \(\ce{H2O}\) and (b) the voltage at which water splitting is thermoneutral.

    Catalysts

    Cobalt–salen (salcomin) type complexes are potential catalysts for \(\ce{H2}\) formation from protons and electrons. The structure of salcomin is given below:

    Figure 1

    Figure 1. The structure of salcomin

    3.3 Determine the oxidation state of the cobalt atom in salcomin. Determine the geometric structure around the cobalt center of salcomin, choosing from these three possibilities: tetrahedral, square planar or octahedral.

    In solution, salcomin can bind \(\ce{O2}\); that links two salcomin moieties by coordinating to the two Co centers. The oxidation state of both Co centers is then +III.

    3.4 Draw the resulting structure.

    The \(\ce{H2}\) formation takes place exclusively at the cobalt center. The reaction is described by a 4-step catalytic cycle starting with \(\ce{Co^2+}\) using 2 \(\ce{H+}\) and 2 electrons. During one step a hydride is formed by an intramolecular electron transfer.

    3.5 Write down two possible variations of the catalytic cycle with charges of the complex and oxidations states of the Co center. The oxidation state on the Co center should not be larger than +III. Mark the hydride formation step with an asterisk and label \(\ce{H+}\) uptake with C (chemical reaction), and electron uptake with E (electrochemical reaction), see example cycle in Figure 2 below. \(\ce{[Co^{II}]}\) stands for the Cobalt–salen complex.

    Figure 2

    Figure 2. An example cycle for task 3.5

    3.6 Using the redox potential values of different cobalt complexes given in Table 1, write down which complex is suitable for a) water oxidation at neutral pH b) water reduction at neutral pH. Write down the corresponding overall reaction for both processes (only for the complexes, capable of performing it) and calculate the cell potential at neutral pH. The half-cell potential for the proton reduction at pH = 7, \(T=298\ \mathrm K\) is \(-0.41\ \mathrm V\).

    Co(III/II) redox couple \(E^\circ\) vs. normal hydrogen electrode
    \(\ce{[Co(H2O)6]}^{3+/2+}\) \(+1.92\ \mathrm V\)
    \(\ce{[Co(C2O4)3]}^{3-/4-}\) \(+0.55\ \mathrm V\)
    \(\ce{[Co(EDTA)]}^{1-/2-}\) \(+0.38\ \mathrm V\)
    \(\ce{[Co(NH3)6]}^{3+/2+}\) \(+0.06\ \mathrm V\)
    \(\ce{[Co(en)3]}^{3+/2+}\) \(-0.18\ \mathrm V\)
    \(\ce{[Co(CN)5]}^{2-/3-}\) \(-0.60\ \mathrm V\)

    Table 1. Possible redox couples for task 3.6; \(\ce{[C2O4]^2-}\) = oxalate, en = 1,2-ethylendiamine.

    A Glimpse at the Natural Process

    The natural storage of biological \(\ce{H2}\) equivalents is NADPH, which is produced from \(\ce{NADP+}\) through the addition of a hydride ion. The structure of NADPH is shown in Figure 3.

    Figure 3

    Figure 3. The structure of NADPH

    3.7 Draw the structure of \(\ce{NADP+}\).

    Chlorophyll has an extinction coefficient of about \(\varepsilon=8\times10^4\ \mathrm{M^{-1}\,cm^{-1}}\) at 680 nm.

    3.8 Assuming an efficiency (photon to hydrogen atom) of \(\phi=20\ \%\) at a 680 nm photon flux of \(100\ \mathrm{nE\,s^{-1}\,cm^{-2}}\) (1 E = 1 mol of photons), calculate a) the number of photons per second and b) the concentration of chlorophyll in a \(1\times1\times1\ \mathrm{cm^3}\) cell needed to get a turnover frequency of \(1\ \mathrm{nmol}\ (\ce{H2})\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}\).

    Official English text of the problem.

  4. Problem 4: Fluorinated and Hypervalent Compounds

    Fluorine forms stable and isolable compounds with essentially all elements, including the noble gases \(\ce{Kr}\) and \(\ce{Xe}\). Fluorine-containing molecules often feature uncommon structures. Thus, fluorine is frequently involved in the formation of compounds with elements of groups 14–18, which are defined as hypervalent. The synthesis of fluorinated organic compounds is nowadays heavily based on the availability of specifically designed reagents, compound 4 below being an example.

    Hint: Any element \(E\) in the series \(\mathbf{E^1}\)–\(\mathbf{E^8}\) may be represented more than once.

    Figure 1

    Part I. Molecular geometry

    4.1 Identify elements \(\mathbf{E^1}\), \(\mathbf{E^2}\), \(\mathbf{E^3}\), and \(\mathbf{E^4}\) in the three species 1, \(\mathbf{[2]^-}\), and \(\mathbf{[3]^-}\).

    Figure 2

    1: neutral, non-zwitterionic molecule, \(\mathbf{E^1}\) square pyramidal, \(\mathbf{E^2}\) octahedral, average \(d(E^1\!-\!\ce{F})=1.91\ \text{Å}\); average \(d(E^2\!-\!\ce{F})=1.58\ \text{Å}\)

    \(\mathbf{[2]^-}\): anion, square pyramidal, average \(d(E^3\!-\!\ce{F})=1.96\ \text{Å}\)

    \(\mathbf{[3]^-}\): anion, pentagonal planar, \(d(E^4\!-\!\ce{F})=1.98\ \text{Å}\)

    Hints:

    1. The molecular geometries refer to the arrangement of atoms bonding to \(E^1\)–\(E^4\)
    2. The elemental analysis of 1 gives a carbon content of 17.75 % wt.
    Group 15 Group 16 Group 17 Group 18
    \(d(\ce{P-F})=1.50\text{–}1.68\ \text{Å}\) \(d(\ce{S-F})=1.52\text{–}1.60\ \text{Å}\) \(d(\ce{Cl-F})=1.63\text{–}1.85\ \text{Å}\)
    \(d(\ce{As-F})=1.68\text{–}1.72\ \text{Å}\) \(d(\ce{Se-F})=1.75\text{–}1.80\ \text{Å}\) \(d(\ce{Br-F})=1.77\text{–}1.97\ \text{Å}\) \(d(\ce{Kr-F})=1.77\text{–}1.89\ \text{Å}\)
    \(d(\ce{Sb-F})=1.85\text{–}2.05\ \text{Å}\) \(d(\ce{Te-F})=1.80\text{–}2.00\ \text{Å}\) \(d(\ce{I-F})=1.90\text{–}2.00\ \text{Å}\) \(d(\ce{Xe-F})=1.77\text{–}2.00\ \text{Å}\)

    Table 1. Typical \(\ce{E-F}\) bond distance ranges for a selection of elements in groups 15–18

    4.2 Choose which elements \(\mathbf{E^5}/\mathbf{E^6}\) and \(\mathbf{E^7}/\mathbf{E^8}\), respectively, would display the given geometry, including \(\ce{E-F}\) bond distances close to those in 1 (see Table 1).

    Figure 3

    Part II. Reactivity and structure

    Consider the reaction shown below:

    Figure 4

    4.3 Choose the ideal geometry of compound 6 in terms of the arrangement of the valence-shell electron-pair domains around the \(\ce{Te}\) atom:

    • square planar
    • square pyramidal
    • trigonal bipyramidal
    • tetrahedral
    • octahedral

    Provide the expected ideal bond angles \(C^1\!-\!\ce{Te}\!-\!\ce{I}\), \(C^2\!-\!\ce{Te}\!-\!\ce{I}\), \(\ce{I-Te-O}\), and \(C^1\!-\!\ce{Te}\!-\!C^2\).

    4.4 Write the number \({}^{1}\mathrm{H}\)-NMR signals you expect for the two methyl groups in compounds 4 and 6, respectively.

    4.5 Compound 6 reacts consecutively with \(\ce{AgF}\) and \(\ce{(H3C)3SiCF3}\) (\(\ce{TMSCF3}\)). Formulate the \(\ce{Te}\)-containing intermediate A and final product B, including their correct geometry, as well as the byproducts C and D. Draw A and B and write the by-products C and D. Hint: molecular weight of D is \(92.08\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\).

    Figure 5

    Assume that compound 6 reacts with a sterically bulky, chiral, enantiomerically pure Lewis acid, such as the known boron derivative 8, as shown below. This reaction should lead to the formation of a new product 9, the composition of which corresponds to the sum of 6 and 8. Further assume that 9 is a salt, in which the cation derives from 6 and the anion from 8.

    Figure 6

    4.6 Draw the structure of both the \(\ce{Te}\)-containing cation and the boron-containing anion and choose the ideal geometry of the cation in terms of the arrangement of the valence-shell electron-pair domains around the \(\ce{Te}\) atom.

    Hint: For 8 (chiral, enantiomerically pure) use the following schematic representation:

    Figure 7

    Choose the ideal molecular geometry of the cation:

    • square-planar
    • trigonal-planar
    • trigonal-pyramidal
    • trigonal-bipyramidal
    • tetrahedral

    4.7 State the number of possible stereochemically different salts 9.

    Part III. Synthesis of a \(\lambda^3\)-difluoroiodane and rotation around a single bond

    Compound 10 is prepared from starting material 8 by oxidation with trichloroisocyanuric acid (TCICA, 9) in the presence of excess \(\ce{KF}\) in dry acetonitrile as shown below.

    Figure 8

    4.8 Write balanced half-cell reactions and a balanced overall reaction for this process.

    Hint: Abbreviate 10 as \(\ce{R-I}\), 11 as \(\ce{R-IF2}\), and TCICA as \(\ce{C3Cl3N3O3}\). The six-membered ring of TCICA stays intact upon reduction.

    The \(\ce{IF2}\) group in 12 can rotate around the \(\ce{I-C}\) bond (imagine a molecular propeller). The corresponding rotation barrier has been measured experimentally, \(E_\mathrm{a}=30\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\). Furthermore, the rate constant for the rotation is \(k=2500\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}\) at \(228\ \mathrm{K}\).

    Figure 9

    4.9 Determine how fast the \(\ce{IF2}\) group can in principle rotate at room temperature (\(298\ \mathrm{K}\)). Consider this process as if it were a chemical reaction for which you are determining the rate constant. Write your answer on the answer sheet. The unit of the constant should be given in \(\mathrm{s^{-1}}\).

    Official English text of the problem.

  5. Problem 5: Hydrodesulfurization

    The production of sulfur-free fuels is the general trend towards lowering the emission of sulfur-containing compounds that are toxic to the environment. To remove sulfur, the hydrogen-assisted hydrodesulfurization process is used at the refineries.

    5.1 Draw the structure of products A to E of thiophene hydrodesulfurization, knowing that A and B are cyclic regioisomers and C is cyclic.

    Figure 1

    Figure 1. Thiophene hydrodesulfurization process

    Sulfur has two most common natural stable isotopes, \(\ce{^{32}S}\) and \(\ce{^{34}S}\), with a relative molar abundance of \(x(\ce{^{32}S})=94.8\,\%\) and \(x(\ce{^{34}S})=4.37\,\%\), respectively. For hydrogen, the stable natural isotopes are \(\ce{^{1}H}\) and \(\ce{^{2}H}\) (\(\ce{D}\)), with a relative molar abundance of \(x(\ce{^{1}H})=99.986\,\%\) and \(x(\ce{^{2}H})=0.014\,\%\), respectively.

    5.2 Considering only the isotopes listed above, list all isotopologues of \(\ce{H2S}\).

    5.3 Considering only the isotopes listed above, list all isotopologues of \(\ce{H2S}\) containing simultaneously \(\ce{D}\) and \(\ce{^{34}S}\) nuclei and for each calculate the respective relative molar abundance in %.

    The desulfurization is a catalytic process typically carried out over \(\ce{MoS2}\) supported on \(\ce{SiO2}\) (\(\ce{MoS2}/\ce{SiO2}\)) catalyst. To study the surface of the catalyst, isotope exchange methods can be employed. The isotope exchange reaction takes place at the gas-solid interface, resulting in the exchange of the surface atoms exclusively. In the first approximation, the bulk atoms do not participate in the exchange (Figure 2).

    In the experiment, the isotope exchange between the \(\ce{MoS2}/\ce{SiO2}\) catalyst (Mo mass fraction \(w_{\mathrm{Mo}}=4.280\,\%\), initially containing only \(\ce{^{32}S}\)) and gaseous isotopically-labeled \(\ce{H2^{34}S}\) was studied in a flow reactor (Figure 2). The \(\ce{MoS2}/\ce{SiO2}\) catalyst (\(m_{\mathrm{cat}}=1.2350\,\mathrm{g}\)) was kept in a flow (\(p=1.00\,\mathrm{bar}\), \(v=20.0\,\mathrm{mL\,min^{-1}}\), \(T=23.0\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\)) of gas mixture containing \(\ce{H2^{34}S}\) balanced with \(\ce{Ar}\) (volume fraction \(\varphi(\ce{H2^{34}S})=1.00\,\%\), \(\ce{^{34}S}\) isotopic purity \(\alpha=99.95\ \text{mol.}\,\%\)). The experiment duration was \(t=10.0\,\mathrm{min}\) and gas from the outlet was collected during the entire experiment. The measured fraction of \(\ce{^{34}S}\) isotope among the sulfur atoms (\(\gamma\)) in the collected gas phase was \(\gamma=87.3\ \text{mol.}\,\%\). Assume ideal gas behavior, and that the elemental (not isotopic!) composition of \(\ce{MoS2}\) on the surface and in the bulk are identical, and by the end of the experiment all sulfur atoms from the surface are exchanged with the gas phase.

    Figure 2

    Figure 2. Schematic representation of the experiment in the course (A) and at the final stage (B). Sulfur atoms on the surface are shown in red, sulfur atoms in the bulk are shown in blue. Molybdenum atoms are not shown.

    5.4 Calculate the amount of exchanged sulfur atoms \(n(\ce{S})_{\mathrm{surface}}\) in mol.

    If you have been unable to calculate the amount of exchanged sulfur atoms, use the value \(1.53\times10^{-5}\,\mathrm{mol}\) in all the following calculations.

    Assume that the \(\ce{MoS2}\) phase consists of uniform spherical particles, and at the end of the experiment all sulfur atoms located on the surface are exchanged, while the bulk atoms did not participate in the exchange reaction. The density of \(\ce{MoS2}\) is \(\rho=5.06\,\mathrm{g\,cm^{-3}}\), the average area occupied by \(\ce{S}\) and \(\ce{Mo}\) atoms on the surface is equal to \(A_{\mathrm{S}}=3.00\times10^{-19}\,\mathrm{m^2}\) and \(A_{\mathrm{Mo}}=5.00\times10^{-19}\,\mathrm{m^2}\), respectively. The area of a sphere with radius \(R\) can be calculated as \(S=4\pi R^2\), and its volume as \(V=(4/3)\pi R^3\). Assume that isotopic composition does not affect the density of \(\ce{MoS2}\).

    5.5 Calculate the particle radius \(R\) of the \(\ce{MoS2}\) particles. Give your answer in nm.

    In reality, the isotopically-labeled atoms from the surface diffuse into the bulk and the non-labeled atoms from the bulk travel to the surface, undergoing a gradual exchange (Figure 3A). Therefore, for a given moment, the fraction of the labeled atoms inside the particle decreases from the surface of the particle to its center. Simultaneously, with an increase in time of exchange, the involvement of bulk atoms to the exchange reaction increases, as sketched in Figure 3B.

    Figure 3

    Figure 3. A) Schematic representation of the diffusion of sulfur isotopes from the surface to the bulk in a \(\ce{MoS2}\) particle. Sulfur atoms on the surface are shown in red, sulfur atoms in the bulk are shown in blue. Molybdenum atoms are not shown. B) The fraction of \(\ce{^{34}S}\) atoms in the bulk as function of time and distance from center of the particle; \(r_{\mathrm{edge}}\) corresponds to the radius of \(\ce{MoS2}\) particle.

    At the end of the experiment, the surface atoms are completely exchanged, and additionally a fraction of the bulk is exchanged via diffusion. The fraction of the exchanged bulk atoms, \(n(\ce{S})_{\mathrm{bulk}}^{\mathrm{ex}}\), of the total bulk atoms of sulfur, \(n(\ce{S})_{\mathrm{bulk}}^{\mathrm{total}}\), can be calculated as:

    \[ F=n(\ce{S})_{\mathrm{bulk}}^{\mathrm{ex}}/ n(\ce{S})_{\mathrm{bulk}}^{\mathrm{total}} =1-\exp(-Dt/R^2) \]

    Where \(t\) is the time of exchange experiment (described above), \(R\) is the particle radius, and \(D\) is the diffusion coefficient. The catalyst described above was independently studied by means of electron microscopy, which showed that the \(\ce{MoS2}\) particles are uniformly distributed spheres with a radius of \(35.0\,\mathrm{nm}\).

    5.6 Using \(R=35.0\,\mathrm{nm}\) and the data of the exchange experiment described above, calculate the diffusion coefficient \(D\) (in \(\mathrm{m^2\,s^{-1}}\)) for the diffusion of sulfur atoms in \(\ce{MoS2}\). In your calculations, use the approximation \(e^x\approx1+x\) for \(x\ll1\).

    Official English text of the problem.

  6. Problem 6: Direct Conversion of Methane to Methanol

    Methane is widely available as natural gas making it an attractive feedstock for the chemical industry, such as for the production of methanol. However, control of this process is challenging as methanol is more easily oxidized than methane. Overoxidation is avoided in a chemical looping process, where active sites of copper-exchanged zeolite catalysts provide only the single oxygen atom required for oxidation to methanol and are consumed. In a second step, the catalyst is regenerated with oxygen in the absence of methane. The scheme below shows two potential catalytic copper sites. During the reaction, Cu(II) is reduced to Cu(I).

    Figure 1

    6.1 Give the number of S1 sites and the number of S2 sites required to oxidize one methane molecule to methanol.

    In the absence of oxygen, the methanol formed does not desorb from zeolite. If the reaction is performed in a container with constant volume and temperature (an autoclave), a pressure-drop results only from the consumption of methane, which can be considered as an ideal gas. In a 1 L autoclave containing 200 mg of zeolite loaded with 4.3 % wt. copper, the initial methane pressure \(p_0 = 933\ \mathrm{Pa}\) dropped to \(p_\infty = 925\ \mathrm{Pa}\) after completion of the reaction at 528 K.

    6.2 Calculate the percentage of copper that reacted.

    6.3 Experimental data are plotted in Figure 1. Based on this, decide on the (pseudo) order of the oxidation of \(\ce{CH4}\).

    (a) The reaction is of (pseudo) zeroth order.

    (b) The reaction is of (pseudo) first order.

    (c) The reaction is of (pseudo) second order.

    Figure 2

    Figure 1. Semi-logarithmic graph of normalized methane pressure versus time for the reaction with copper-loaded zeolite containing sites S1 and S2 in an autoclave at various temperatures. The symbols denote experimental data points. The solid lines are linear fits to appropriate time ranges. The dotted lines are guides for the eyes

    6.4 Write down the (pseudo) rate law for the oxidation of \(\ce{CH4}\) that is consistent with the experimental data under the given conditions. Note that it may depend on the concentrations of \(\ce{CH4}\) as well as of sites S1 and S2 and on the rate constants.

    6.5 Choose the correct statement(s).

    (a) At least two types of copper sites react, each with a different rate constant.

    (b) The overall methane oxidation by zeolite is faster at higher temperature.

    (c) At higher temperature, a larger fraction of the copper sites will have reacted with methane after completion of the reaction.

    (d) One of the reactions becomes slower at higher temperature.

    Paramagnetic sites S1 can be observed by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, whereas diamagnetic sites S2 do not give an EPR signal. EPR spectroscopy measures the number of electron spins. Thus, the number of S1 sites is proportional to the double integral \(I_2\) of the EPR spectrum, i.e. \([\mathbf{S1}] \propto I_2\). Spectra were measured at different temperatures \(T\) and at each temperature at different times, \(t\), after initiating the reaction.

    6.6 Derive the equation, which is linear in time, that relates \(I_2(t)\) to the rate constant for the loss of S1 sites.

    6.7 Tick the boxes on the answer sheet for each measurement that needs to be calibrated with a known Cu(II) standard.

    (a) Total number of paramagnetic Cu(II) sites in the sample.

    (b) Concentration of paramagnetic Cu(II) sites in the sample.

    (c) Rate constant.

    (d) Types of different paramagnetic Cu(II) species in the sample.

    From EPR measurements, it is known that the rate constant for the reaction with S1 sites at 528 K is \(2.604 \times 10^{-3}\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}\).

    6.8 Considering Figure 1 and based on a calculation, decide if methane reacts faster or slower with S2 sites than with S1 sites.

    (a) Methane reacts faster with S1.

    (b) Both reaction rates are the same.

    (c) Methane reacts faster with S2.

    Methanol can be further converted into valuable olefins with different zeolite catalysts. In this process, one observes an intermediate product with molar mass \(86.09\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\), elemental analysis (55.8 % wt. \(\ce{C}\), 7.0 % wt. \(\ce{H}\)) and an \({}^{1}\mathrm{H}\) NMR spectrum consisting of signals at four different chemical shifts:

    a: 12.2 ppm (1H, s), broad, disappears when \(\ce{D2O}\) is added

    b: 6.3 ppm (1H, d)

    c: 5.7 ppm (1H, d)

    d: 2.0 ppm (3H, s)

    6.9 Draw the structure of the intermediate product and assign protons a and d.

    The United States Department of Energy assigned twelve chemical compounds only containing \(\ce{C}\), \(\ce{H}\) and \(\ce{O}\) as platform chemicals. These are the most promising candidates, easy to prepare from renewable resources and with multiple target derivatives to be prepared from them. One of them is compound A, that can either be further derivatized or used for example in medicinal applications or in detergents.

    • \({}^{1}\mathrm{H}\) NMR in DMSO: 7.81 ppm (a, s), 13.0 ppm (b, s, broad, disappears when \(\ce{D2O}\) is added), both signals have the same integral.
    • \({}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) NMR: 165.1 ppm (1), 150.6 ppm (2) and 120.6 ppm (3).
    • \(M = 156.03\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\). Elemental analysis: 46.15 % wt. \(\ce{C}\), 2.56 % wt. \(\ce{H}\).

    6.10 Give a possible structure of A and assign all protons and carbon 1.

    Official English text of the problem.

  7. Problem 7: Enzyme Kinetics

    The Michaelis–Menten (MM) mechanism, introduced in 1913, describes the kinetics of enzyme catalysis. In this mechanism, enzyme \(\ce{E}\) catalyzes the conversion of substrate \(\ce{S}\) to the product \(\ce{P}\):

    Figure 1

    The initial rate for an enzymatic reaction following the MM mechanism is given as

    \[ v_0=v_{\max}\frac{[\ce{S}]_0}{K_{\mathrm M}+[\ce{S}]_0} \tag{1} \]

    when the initial concentration of \(\ce{E}\) is much lower than the initial concentration of \(\ce{S}\), \([\ce{E}]_0\ll[\ce{S}]_0\). The Michaelis constant is defined as \(K_{\mathrm M}=(k_2+k_3)/k_1\). The initial rate can also be expressed as the product of the relative flow \(j\) and \([\ce{E}]_0\):

    \[ v_0=j[\ce{E}]_0 \tag{2} \]

    Note: Questions 7.1 and 7.2 can have one, multiple, or no correct answer(s).

    7.1 Choose the correct alternative form(s) of the initial rate (\(v_0\)) expressions (1) and (2).

    \([\ce{ES}]_{\max}\) is the maximum concentration of the \(\ce{ES}\) complex.

    • (a) \(\displaystyle v_0=\frac{k_3[\ce{E}]_0[\ce{S}]_0}{K_{\mathrm M}+[\ce{S}]_0}\)
    • (b) \(\displaystyle v_0=\frac{k_3[\ce{E}]}{K_{\mathrm M}/[\ce{S}]_0+1}\)
    • (c) \(\displaystyle v_0=j[\ce{ES}]_{\max}\)
    • (d) \(\displaystyle v_0=\frac{k_3[\ce{E}]_0[\ce{ES}]_{\max}}{K_{\mathrm M}+[\ce{S}]_0}\)
    • (e) \(\displaystyle v_0=\frac{k_3[\ce{E}]_0}{K_{\mathrm M}/[\ce{S}]_0+1}\)
    • (f) \(\displaystyle v_0=\frac{j[\ce{E}]_0}{K_{\mathrm M}+[\ce{S}]_0}\)

    7.2 Choose the pair(s) of axes (\(y\) vs. \(x\)) that are expected to give a linear plot.

    • (a) \(v_0\) vs. \(1/[\ce{S}]_0\)
    • (b) \(v_0\) vs. \(v_0/K_{\mathrm M}\)
    • (c) \(v_0\) vs. \(K_{\mathrm M}/v_0\)
    • (d) \(1/v_0\) vs. \(v_0/[\ce{S}]_0\)
    • (e) \(1/v_0\) vs. \(v_0/K_{\mathrm M}\)
    • (f) \([\ce{S}]_0/v_0\) vs. \([\ce{S}]_0\)

    Many enzymes catalyze multi- rather than single-substrate transformations. However, if the concentration of one of the substrates is much higher than that of the other substrate or it is kept constant, the MM kinetics is also valid. Here we will look at two independent enzymatic systems that follow the MM kinetics.

    Enzymatic System I

    Enzyme \(\ce{E}\) converts substrates \(\ce{A}\) and \(\ce{B}\) to products \(\ce{P_A}\) and \(\ce{P_B}\). At rapid pre-equilibrium between the free enzyme and all enzyme–substrate complexes, the following equation applies:

    \[ v_0= \frac{k[\ce{E}]_0[\ce{A}]_0[\ce{B}]_0} {(K+[\ce{A}]_0)(K+[\ce{B}]_0)} \tag{3} \]

    where \(k\) is the rate constant of one of the reactions. The same equilibrium constant \(K\) characterizes the dissociation of either substrate from the corresponding active site of \(\ce{E}\).

    7.3 Show that equation (3) takes the MM form (1) if the concentration of substrate \(\ce{B}\) is maintained at a constant value \(c_0\). Give the expression for \(v_{\max}\) in this case.

    7.4 Propose a kinetic scheme for the Enzymatic System I consistent with eq. (3), showing all the intermediates and products. Indicate the reaction with a rate constant \(k\).

    Enzymatic System II

    Enzyme \(\ce{E}\) has five active sites, each of which is specific to one of the substrates \(\ce{S_A}\), \(\ce{S_B}\), or \(\ce{S_C}\) that are selectively transformed to products \(\ce{P_A}\), \(\ce{P_B}\), or \(\ce{P_C}\), respectively. There is at least one active site for each substrate. Each active site is independent of the others.

    Figure 2

    For \(\ce{E}\), it is known that:

    1. The affinity for \(\ce{S_C}\) is higher than for \(\ce{S_B}\).

    2. The plot of \(v_{0i}\) vs. \(v_{0i}/[\ce{S_i}]_0\), known as Eadie–Hofstee plot, for \(\ce{S_A}\), \(\ce{S_B}\), \(\ce{S_C}\), with rate given per active site (\(v_{0i}\)), is shown below, but the scale and the legend are omitted.

    Figure 3
    1. When \(\ce{E}\) is saturated with \(\ce{S_A}\), \(\ce{S_B}\), \(\ce{S_C}\), the catalytic turnover number (TON) for \(\ce{S_C}\) per site is \(10200\ \mathrm{min^{-1}}\), and 2023 product \(\ce{P_A}\), \(\ce{P_B}\), \(\ce{P_C}\) molecules in total are synthesized per second. At the same time, no more than \(5.94\times10^6\) molecules of \(\ce{P_A}\) and \(\ce{P_B}\) are detected to form per hour.

    2. At equimolar concentrations of \(\ce{S_A}\), \(\ce{S_B}\), \(\ce{S_C}\), which are at least 1000-times lower than corresponding \(K_{\mathrm M,i}\) values, the \(\ce{P_A}\), \(\ce{P_B}\), \(\ce{P_C}\) concentrations become proportional to the catalytic efficiency \((\varepsilon_i=k_{i3}/K_{\mathrm M,i})\), and their ratio is \(3:2:5\), respectively.

    3. Two \(\ce{ES_i}\) complexes have equal rate constants for dissociation to \(\ce{E}\) and \(\ce{S_i}\). The activation barrier for the reaction of \(\ce{ES_C}\) into the initial compounds is \(1266\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}}\) higher than for the reaction into the final products. Assume that the pre-exponential factors are equal for both reactions and \(T=25\,^\circ\mathrm C\).

    4. For \(\ce{E + S_i}\) reaction: \(k_{\mathrm{c1}}=1.57\times10^7\ \mathrm{M^{-1}\,s^{-1}}\) and \(k_{\mathrm{a1}}=k_{\mathrm{b1}}\).

    7.5 Fill in the table below and provide your calculations. Hints:

    • Use information from points 1 and 2 to find the relation (\(<\), \(>\), \(=\)) between constants \(K_{\mathrm M,A}\), \(K_{\mathrm M,B}\) and \(K_{\mathrm M,C}\).
    • Information from points 3 and 5 allows you to complete the first column (number of active sites for each substrate) and the last row (all the constants for substrate \(\ce{S_C}\)) of the table. Check that the sum of active sites is equal to 5.
    # of active sites \(k_1\) \(k_2\) \(k_3\) \(K_{\mathrm M}\)
    \(\ce{S_A}\)
    \(\ce{S_B}\)
    \(\ce{S_C}\) \(1.57\times10^7\ \mathrm{M^{-1}\,s^{-1}}\)

    Official English text of the problem.

  8. Problem 8: Nazarov Reaction

    The Nazarov reaction is a frequently used reaction of divinyl ketones to give cyclopentenones. It proceeds either photochemically or via acid catalysis and is an electrocyclization, followed by a proton transfer.

    Figure 1

    8.1 Draw the π molecular orbitals to describe the Nazarov reaction. Fill in the electrons into the respective energy levels. Mark with an x the (i) HOMO (highest occupied molecular orbital) and (ii) LUMO (lowest unoccupied molecular orbital). For this exercise, you can consider the divinyl ketone as a pentadienyl cation with five p-orbitals.

    Figure 2

    8.2 From the π molecular orbitals you derived in Task 8.1, predict under which conditions the Nazarov reaction of the divinyl ketone will proceed in a disrotatory or conrotatory fashion. In the table mark with an x the conditions under which the reaction is allowed.

    Disrotatory Conrotatory
    Thermal
    Photochemical

    8.3 The Nazarov reaction was used as key reaction in a synthesis of Farnesin. For both conditions below, draw one possible structure for each of A and B, including stereochemistry. Note that the products of both reactions show \(\ce{^1H}\) NMR a signal at 6.70–6.73 ppm.

    Figure 3

    The synthesis of Capnellene commences with unsaturated aldehyde C shown below. Treatment with D, followed by reaction with \(\ce{MnO2}\) supported on carbon gave divinyl ketone E shown below. Exposure to a mixture of \(\ce{P2O5}\) and MsOH yielded F, which was elaborated via a sequence of reactions to the unsaturated ketone I.

    Figure 4

    8.4 Choose the reagent(s) from the list that would be suitable as D.

    (a) \(\ce{H2C=CHMgBr}\)  (c) \(\ce{H2C=CHBr}\), \(\ce{Pd(PPh3)4}\)

    (b) 1. \(\ce{NaBH4}\) 2. \(\ce{H2C=CHLi}\)  (d) \(\ce{H2C=CHMgBr}\), \(\ce{CuI}\)

    8.5 Give the structures of intermediates F, G, and H, including their stereochemistry.

    Enone I was then subjected to \(\ce{H2C=CHMgBr}\) and \(\ce{CuI}\) in THF to give intermediate J, followed by ozonolysis to yield intermediate K, which shows a signal at 9.61 ppm in the \(\ce{^1H}\) NMR. Treatment with 5-% \(\ce{KOH}\) in a mixture of THF and ether yielded intermediate L. Hydrogenation with a Pt catalyst and under an atmosphere of \(\ce{H2}\) yielded M, which finally gave rise to Capnellene.

    Figure 5

    8.6 Give the structures J, K, L, and M, including their stereochemistry.

    Official English text of the problem.

  9. Problem 9: Electrolysis in Organic Synthesis

    The Kolbe electrolysis describes the decarboxylative dimerization of two carboxylic acids and only proceeds if the acid is deprotonated. The unbalanced equation is shown here.

    Figure 1

    Two gases (B and C) are produced during the reaction. B reacts with \(\ce{Ca(OH)2}\), while C is highly flammable.

    9.1 Provide the structural formulae of A, B, and C.

    9.2 The synthesis is formally a redox reaction, where the carboxylate is oxidized and the solvent is reduced. Formulate the oxidative and reductive half reactions and the overall redox reaction.

    9.3 Provide the intermediates 1 and 2 in the mechanism for the oxidative decarboxylation and formation of the product.

    Figure 2

    The Kolbe electrolysis is usually only efficient for long-chained saturated carboxylic acids and not for certain carboxylic acids, such as D. Here, the overoxidation of the radical intermediate E to a positively charged species F is facilitated. Intermediate F can react with nucleophiles to form different side products, for example it reacts with D to form an ester G, and with \(\ce{MeOH}\) to form H.

    Figure 3

    9.4 Provide the structures of D–H.

    The electrolysis of carboxylic acid I in the presence of an excess of co-acid J yields two main products (by \({}^{1}\mathrm{H}\) NMR analysis) that are inseparable by silica gel chromatography. Their spectroscopic data are almost identical. In the \({}^{1}\mathrm{H}\) NMR, the two species are only distinguishable by two signals with small differences in chemical shifts.

    Figure 4

    The \({}^{1}\mathrm{H}\) NMR spectrum looks as follows (1:1 mixture of products K and L):

    4.18–4.08 (m, 4 H), 3.95–3.60 (m, 6 H), 3.43 (dt, 2 H, \(J=7.8,\ 2.2\ \mathrm{Hz}\)),
    2.55–2.25 (m, 4 H), 2.20–1.95 (m, 2 H), 1.65–1.50 (m, 2 H)

    Specific signals for K:

    1.26 (t, 3 H, \(J=7.2\ \mathrm{Hz}\)), 1.20 (d, 3 H, \(J=6.6\ \mathrm{Hz}\))

    Specific signals for L:

    1.24 (t, 3 H, \(J=7.2\ \mathrm{Hz}\)), 1.15 (d, 3 H, \(J=6.6\ \mathrm{Hz}\))

    Figure 5

    9.5 Provide the structures for products K and L. Indicate how the products are related.

    (a) Epimers  (b) Enantiomers

    (c) Diastereomers  (d) Constitutional Isomers

    The choice of the electrode material can influence the selectivity of an organic electrosynthetic reaction. The reductive electrolysis of benzaldehyde (M) (16 mM in 1 M aqueous \(\ce{KOH}\), \(\ce{Pt}\) anode, −1.3 V vs. \(\ce{Ag/AgCl}\)) yields different products depending on the cathode material used. Strong binding to the surface favors intermolecular reactions. The figure below shows the product distribution for different cathode materials and the mass spectra of the products.

    Figure 6

    9.6 Provide the structure of N and O.

    Alkenes, such as enol ethers, can be oxidatively coupled. This typically involves the anodic oxidation of the alkene fragment to yield a radical cation which can be intercepted by a nucleophile.

    9.7 Provide the structural formulae of P, Q, R, and S in the scheme below. Indicating stereochemistry is not required. Hint: S is a tricyclic product.

    Figure 7

    Official English text of the problem.

  10. Problem 10: Switzerland — The Country of Pharmaceuticals

    Pasireotide (1) is a peptide-based drug developed by the Swiss pharmaceutical company Novartis to treat the Cushing's disease.

    Figure 1

    10.1 Determine the number of stereogenic centers (\(n\)) in Pasireotide (1). Calculate the total number of all possible stereoisomers (\(t\)).

    Pasireotide (1) is a cyclic peptide. An advanced intermediate in its synthesis (linear peptide 2) can be prepared by solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) using the Fmoc/tBu strategy as shown in Scheme 1.

    Figure 2

    Scheme 1. SPPS of peptide 2. i) Linker; ii) Resin; iii) Resin loading; iv) SPPS: repetition of 1. Fmoc deprotection 2. amino acid coupling + final Fmoc deprotection; v) Peptide cleavage from resin and deprotection of PG-2.

    The synthesis starts with the preparation of Fmoc-Tyr(Bn)-OH (3) from Boc-Tyr-OH (7).

    Figure 3

    10.2 Draw reagents A and D and intermediates B and C in the synthesis of Fmoc-Tyr(Bn)-OH (3) as shown above.

    The SPPS of intermediate 2 begins with attaching the Fmoc-Tyr(Bn)-OH (3) to a suitable resin-bound linker.

    Figure 4

    Scheme 2. ii) Resin; a) 2-Chlorotrityl-chloride linker; b) Safety-catch linker; c) Rink amide linker; d) SASRIN-chloride linker; e) Sieber amide linker; f) Wang linker

    10.3 Choose the linker(s) 4 from Scheme 2 that are appropriate for SPPS of peptide 2 according to Scheme 1.

    Figure 5

    10.4 From g–l choose the most suitable side-chain protecting groups PG-1 and PG-2 for SPPS of 2 according to Scheme 1 that can be orthogonally cleaved in the presence of all other functional groups present in Pasireotide. Only one answer is correct for each of the protecting groups.

    Next, linear peptide 2 undergoes an intramolecular coupling reaction to form cyclic peptide 8 according to the following scheme:

    Figure 6

    Scheme 3. vi) Base

    10.5 Choose the correct statement(s) about the cyclization of peptide 2 to 8.

    (a) A possible side-product of the reaction is tetramethylguanidylation of the \(N\)-terminal phenylalanine residue resulting in compound 9 shown below.

    (b) A possible side-product of the reaction is the cleavage of protecting group PG-1 and cyclization via the amino group of the lysine residue to give compound 10 shown below.

    (c) The reaction must be carried out at a high peptide concentration to achieve a sufficient reaction rate.

    (d) The reaction must be carried out at a low peptide concentration to prevent polycondensation.

    (e) Piperidine (11) below is a suitable base for the reaction.

    Figure 7
    Figure 8

    The last steps of the synthesis involve functionalization of the OH-group of the 4-hydroxyproline residue in 8, followed by cleavage of all PGs to give Pasireotide (1).

    Figure 9

    Scheme 4. vii) can be used as simplification of 8; viii) Cleavage of protecting groups

    10.6 Draw the structures of intermediate E (including stereochemistry) and reagent F. Abbreviate intermediate 8 as (vii) and the protecting group as PG-1 in structures E and F as depicted in Scheme 5.

    10.7 Determine the lowest possible molar equivalents of compound 12 that are necessary to enable full conversion of 8 to 13.

    Official English text of the problem.