IChO 2023 · Theory problem 3

Artificial Photosynthesis

The field of artificial photosynthesis research aims at storing solar energy in chemical bonds. Photons are absorbed by exciting sensitizers, thereby producing a charge-separated state. The excited electron is transferred to a catalyst (hydrogen evolving catalyst, HEC), which is reduced twice and then produces \(\ce{H2}\). The photosensitizer or light absorber is often \(\ce{[Ru(bpy)3]^2+}\) (bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine), and the HECs are often cobalt complexes.

Energetics of Water Splitting

3.1 Calculate the enthalpy of the reaction \(\ce{H2 -> 2H+(aq) + 2e-}\).

Solvation enthalpy of proton: \(\Delta_{\mathrm{aq}}H(\ce{H+})=-1190\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)

Ionization energy of hydrogen: \(IE_1=13.6\ \mathrm{eV}\)

Dissociation enthalpy of \(\ce{H2}\): \(\Delta_{\mathrm{diss}}H(\ce{H2})=432\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)

Ideally, electrochemical water splitting into \(\ce{O2}\) and \(\ce{H2}\) runs at 1.23 V. Since \(T\Delta S\) for this process is positive, heat from the environment is needed. If additional voltage produces the heat required to compensate the decrease in temperature the process is called thermoneutral. The enthalpy of \(\ce{H2O}\) formation, \(\Delta_{\mathrm f}H^\circ(\ce{H2O})\), is \(-285\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\).

3.2 Calculate (a) the water splitting reaction entropy \(\Delta_{\mathrm r}S^\circ\) at 25 °C of 1 mol of \(\ce{H2O}\) and (b) the voltage at which water splitting is thermoneutral.

Catalysts

Cobalt–salen (salcomin) type complexes are potential catalysts for \(\ce{H2}\) formation from protons and electrons. The structure of salcomin is given below:

Figure 1

Figure 1. The structure of salcomin

3.3 Determine the oxidation state of the cobalt atom in salcomin. Determine the geometric structure around the cobalt center of salcomin, choosing from these three possibilities: tetrahedral, square planar or octahedral.

In solution, salcomin can bind \(\ce{O2}\); that links two salcomin moieties by coordinating to the two Co centers. The oxidation state of both Co centers is then +III.

3.4 Draw the resulting structure.

The \(\ce{H2}\) formation takes place exclusively at the cobalt center. The reaction is described by a 4-step catalytic cycle starting with \(\ce{Co^2+}\) using 2 \(\ce{H+}\) and 2 electrons. During one step a hydride is formed by an intramolecular electron transfer.

3.5 Write down two possible variations of the catalytic cycle with charges of the complex and oxidations states of the Co center. The oxidation state on the Co center should not be larger than +III. Mark the hydride formation step with an asterisk and label \(\ce{H+}\) uptake with C (chemical reaction), and electron uptake with E (electrochemical reaction), see example cycle in Figure 2 below. \(\ce{[Co^{II}]}\) stands for the Cobalt–salen complex.

Figure 2

Figure 2. An example cycle for task 3.5

3.6 Using the redox potential values of different cobalt complexes given in Table 1, write down which complex is suitable for a) water oxidation at neutral pH b) water reduction at neutral pH. Write down the corresponding overall reaction for both processes (only for the complexes, capable of performing it) and calculate the cell potential at neutral pH. The half-cell potential for the proton reduction at pH = 7, \(T=298\ \mathrm K\) is \(-0.41\ \mathrm V\).

Co(III/II) redox couple \(E^\circ\) vs. normal hydrogen electrode
\(\ce{[Co(H2O)6]}^{3+/2+}\) \(+1.92\ \mathrm V\)
\(\ce{[Co(C2O4)3]}^{3-/4-}\) \(+0.55\ \mathrm V\)
\(\ce{[Co(EDTA)]}^{1-/2-}\) \(+0.38\ \mathrm V\)
\(\ce{[Co(NH3)6]}^{3+/2+}\) \(+0.06\ \mathrm V\)
\(\ce{[Co(en)3]}^{3+/2+}\) \(-0.18\ \mathrm V\)
\(\ce{[Co(CN)5]}^{2-/3-}\) \(-0.60\ \mathrm V\)

Table 1. Possible redox couples for task 3.6; \(\ce{[C2O4]^2-}\) = oxalate, en = 1,2-ethylendiamine.

A Glimpse at the Natural Process

The natural storage of biological \(\ce{H2}\) equivalents is NADPH, which is produced from \(\ce{NADP+}\) through the addition of a hydride ion. The structure of NADPH is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3

Figure 3. The structure of NADPH

3.7 Draw the structure of \(\ce{NADP+}\).

Chlorophyll has an extinction coefficient of about \(\varepsilon=8\times10^4\ \mathrm{M^{-1}\,cm^{-1}}\) at 680 nm.

3.8 Assuming an efficiency (photon to hydrogen atom) of \(\phi=20\ \%\) at a 680 nm photon flux of \(100\ \mathrm{nE\,s^{-1}\,cm^{-2}}\) (1 E = 1 mol of photons), calculate a) the number of photons per second and b) the concentration of chlorophyll in a \(1\times1\times1\ \mathrm{cm^3}\) cell needed to get a turnover frequency of \(1\ \mathrm{nmol}\ (\ce{H2})\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}\).

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 3.1: \(\boxed{\Delta_{\mathrm r}H=+676\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}}\), per mole of \(\ce{H2}\).
  • 3.2: (a) \(\boxed{\Delta_{\mathrm r}S^\circ=+160\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}}}\); (b) \(\boxed{U_{\mathrm{tn}}=1.48\ \mathrm V}\).
  • 3.3: Cobalt has oxidation state +II; the coordination geometry is square planar.
  • 3.4: A neutral peroxide-bridged dicobalt(III)–salen dimer, with connectivity \(\ce{(L)Co^{III}-O-O-Co^{III}(L)}\), where \(\ce{L^2-}\) is salen.
  • 3.5: Two alternatives are E–C*–E–C and E–C*–C–E. Their fully balanced steps, charges and oxidation states are given below.
  • 3.6: (a) Hexaaquacobalt(III), \(\ce{[Co(H2O)6]^3+}\), oxidizes water: \(\boxed{E_{\mathrm{cell}}=+1.10\ \mathrm V}\). (b) Pentacyanidocobaltate(II), \(\ce{[Co(CN)5]^3-}\), reduces water: \(\boxed{E_{\mathrm{cell}}=+0.19\ \mathrm V}\).
  • 3.7: \(\ce{NADP+}\) has an aromatic nicotinamide pyridinium ring, with positive charge on its ring nitrogen and one hydrogen at C4. The ribose stereochemistry and the group \(R\) remain unchanged.
  • 3.8: (a) Required absorbed photon rate: \(\boxed{6.02\times10^{15}\ \mathrm{photons\,s^{-1}}}\). Incident photon rate through the \(1\ \mathrm{cm^2}\) face: \(\boxed{6.02\times10^{16}\ \mathrm{photons\,s^{-1}}}\). (b) \(\boxed{c=5.7\times10^{-7}\ \mathrm M=0.57\ \mathrm{\mu M}}\).

Solution

The numerical calculations use \[ F=96485.3\ \mathrm{C\,mol^{-1}},\qquad N_{\mathrm A}=6.02214076\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}, \] and \[ 1\ \mathrm{eV\ per\ particle}=96.4853\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}. \]

The small species used below have the following names and SMILES:

Species Name SMILES
\(\ce{H2O}\) Water O
\(\ce{H2}\) Dihydrogen [H][H]
\(\ce{O2}\) Dioxygen O=O
\(\ce{H}\) Hydrogen atom [H]
\(\ce{H+}\) Proton [H+]
\(\ce{H-}\) Hydride ion [H-]
\(\ce{OH-}\) Hydroxide ion [OH-]
\(\ce{O2^2-}\) Peroxide ion [O-][O-]

Coordination SMILES below use -> for donor-to-metal bonds. Coordination geometry is specified in words.

3.1 — Enthalpy of hydrogen oxidation

Apply Hess’s law using dissociation, ionization and solvation:

\[ \ce{H2(g) -> 2H(g)} \qquad \Delta H_1=+432\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}. \]

\[ \ce{2H(g) -> 2H+(g) + 2e-} \] \[ \Delta H_2 =2(13.6)(96.4853) =+2624.4\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}. \]

\[ \ce{2H+(g) -> 2H+(aq)} \qquad \Delta H_3=2(-1190)=-2380\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}. \]

Adding gives the required reaction: \[ \ce{H2(g) -> 2H+(aq) + 2e-}, \] with \[ \boxed{ \Delta_{\mathrm r}H =432+2624.4-2380 =+676.4 \approx+676\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}. } \]

3.2 — Entropy and thermoneutral voltage

For one mole of liquid water, \[ \ce{H2O(l) -> H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g)}. \]

The reaction transfers two moles of electrons per mole of water. Its enthalpy is the negative of the given formation enthalpy: \[ \Delta_{\mathrm r}H^\circ=+285\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}. \]

(a) The minimum electrical work is the reaction Gibbs energy: \[ \Delta_{\mathrm r}G^\circ =2FU_{\mathrm{rev}} =2(96485.3)(1.23) =237.354\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}. \]

Using \(\Delta G=\Delta H-T\Delta S\), at \(T=298.15\ \mathrm K\), \[ \Delta_{\mathrm r}S^\circ =\frac{(285-237.354)\times10^3}{298.15}. \]

Thus, \[ \boxed{\Delta_{\mathrm r}S^\circ=+159.8 \approx+160\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}}.} \]

The positive entropy change accounts for the approximately \(47.6\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\) of environmental heat needed during reversible electrolysis.

(b) At the thermoneutral voltage, electrical energy supplies the entire reaction enthalpy: \[ 2FU_{\mathrm{tn}}=\Delta_{\mathrm r}H^\circ. \]

Therefore, \[ \boxed{ U_{\mathrm{tn}} =\frac{285000}{2(96485.3)} =1.4769 \approx1.48\ \mathrm V. } \]

3.3 — Oxidation state and geometry of salcomin

Let \(\ce{L^2-}\) denote the salen dianion, the doubly deprotonated tetradentate Schiff-base ligand:

[O-]c1ccccc1/C=N/CC/N=C/c1ccccc1[O-]

Its two phenolate oxygen donors each contribute charge \(-1\), while the two imine nitrogen donors are neutral. Salcomin is neutral, so \[ x+(-2)=0, \] giving \[ \boxed{x=+II.} \]

The ligand holds its two nitrogen and two oxygen donors approximately in one plane around cobalt. The correct choice is therefore square planar.

Cobalt(II)–salen (salcomin) has coordination SMILES:

[Co+2]123<-[O-]c4ccccc4/C=N->1/CC/N->2=C/c4ccccc4[O-]->3

The square-planar arrangement must be stated separately; it is not encoded by this SMILES.

3.4 — Oxygen-bound dimer

Each cobalt center changes from +II to +III, so the two centers together supply two electrons: \[ \ce{O2 + 2e- -> O2^2-}. \]

Consequently, the oxygen ligand is peroxide, with a single oxygen–oxygen bond and oxidation state \(-I\) on each oxygen.

The overall binding reaction is \[ \ce{2[Co^{II}L]^0 + O2 -> [LCo^{III}-O-O-Co^{III}L]^0}. \]

The product charge is \[ 2(+3)+2(-2)+(-2)=0. \]

The required drawing is an end-on \(\mu\)-peroxido-bis[(salen)cobalt(III)] dimer: draw a \(\ce{Co-O-O-Co}\) chain, with each cobalt also connected to the two nitrogen and two oxygen donors of its own salen ligand. Each peroxide oxygen coordinates to one cobalt, occupying an additional, approximately axial position relative to that cobalt’s salen donor plane.

Its coordination SMILES is:

[Co+3]123(<-[O-][O-]->[Co+3]456<-[O-]c7ccccc7/C=N->4/CC/N->5=C/c7ccccc7[O-]->6)<-[O-]c4ccccc4/C=N->1/CC/N->2=C/c4ccccc4[O-]->3

3.5 — Two catalytic cycles

The salen ligand remains \(\ce{L^2-}\). A bound hydrogen in a hydride complex is \(\ce{H-}\), so \[ q\!\left(\ce{[CoL]}\right)=\operatorname{OS}(\ce{Co})-2, \] and \[ q\!\left(\ce{[CoLH]}\right)=\operatorname{OS}(\ce{Co})-3. \]

The additional species required for the two cycles are:

Species Name Coordination SMILES
\(\ce{[Co^{I}L]^-}\) Cobalt(I)–salen anion [Co+]123<-[O-]c4ccccc4/C=N->1/CC/N->2=C/c4ccccc4[O-]->3
\(\ce{[Co^{III}LH]^0}\) Hydridocobalt(III)–salen [H-]->[Co+3]123<-[O-]c4ccccc4/C=N->1/CC/N->2=C/c4ccccc4[O-]->3
\(\ce{[Co^{II}LH]^-}\) Hydridocobalt(II)–salen anion [H-]->[Co+2]123<-[O-]c4ccccc4/C=N->1/CC/N->2=C/c4ccccc4[O-]->3
\(\ce{[Co^{III}L]^+}\) Cobalt(III)–salen cation [Co+3]123<-[O-]c4ccccc4/C=N->1/CC/N->2=C/c4ccccc4[O-]->3

The hydride is directly bound to cobalt. The dative notation provides explicit charge bookkeeping; it does not specify a detailed three-dimensional geometry.

First variation: E–C*–E–C

\[ \ce{[Co^{II}L]^0 + e- -> [Co^{I}L]^-} \qquad \mathrm E \]

\[ \ce{[Co^{I}L]^- + H+ -> [Co^{III}LH]^0} \qquad \mathrm C^* \]

\[ \ce{[Co^{III}LH]^0 + e- -> [Co^{II}LH]^-} \qquad \mathrm E \]

\[ \ce{[Co^{II}LH]^- + H+ -> [Co^{II}L]^0 + H2} \qquad \mathrm C \]

Second variation: E–C*–C–E

\[ \ce{[Co^{II}L]^0 + e- -> [Co^{I}L]^-} \qquad \mathrm E \]

\[ \ce{[Co^{I}L]^- + H+ -> [Co^{III}LH]^0} \qquad \mathrm C^* \]

\[ \ce{[Co^{III}LH]^0 + H+ -> [Co^{III}L]^+ + H2} \qquad \mathrm C \]

\[ \ce{[Co^{III}L]^+ + e- -> [Co^{II}L]^0} \qquad \mathrm E \]

In each starred step, cobalt(I) transfers two electrons internally to the incoming proton. Hydrogen changes from \(+I\) to \(-I\), forming hydride, while cobalt changes from \(+I\) to \(+III\).

Protonation of the hydride then produces dihydrogen. Each cycle regenerates the original cobalt(II) complex and sums to \[ \boxed{\ce{2H+ + 2e- -> H2}.} \]

No cobalt oxidation state exceeds +III.

3.6 — Water oxidation and reduction

At pH 7, the hydrogen reduction half-reaction is \[ \ce{2H+ + 2e- -> H2}, \qquad E=-0.41\ \mathrm V. \]

The oxygen/water and proton/hydrogen reduction potentials differ by the reversible water-splitting voltage, 1.23 V. Hence \[ \ce{O2 + 4H+ + 4e- -> 2H2O}, \qquad E=1.23-0.41=+0.82\ \mathrm V. \]

A reaction is thermodynamically favorable when \[ E_{\mathrm{cell}} =E_{\mathrm{cathode}}-E_{\mathrm{anode}}>0, \] where both electrode potentials are written as reduction potentials.

(a) Water oxidation

The cobalt(III) oxidant must have a reduction potential greater than \(+0.82\ \mathrm V\). Only the hexaaqua couple, at \(+1.92\ \mathrm V\), satisfies this condition.

The species are:

  • Hexaaquacobalt(III), \(\ce{[Co(H2O)6]^3+}\): [Co+3](<-O)(<-O)(<-O)(<-O)(<-O)<-O
  • Hexaaquacobalt(II), \(\ce{[Co(H2O)6]^2+}\): [Co+2](<-O)(<-O)(<-O)(<-O)(<-O)<-O

Both have six coordinated water ligands in an octahedral arrangement.

Combine \[ \ce{4[Co(H2O)6]^3+ + 4e- -> 4[Co(H2O)6]^2+} \] with \[ \ce{2H2O -> O2 + 4H+ + 4e-}. \]

The overall reaction is \[ \boxed{ \ce{4[Co(H2O)6]^3+ + 2H2O -> 4[Co(H2O)6]^2+ + O2 + 4H+}. } \]

At pH 7, \[ \boxed{E_{\mathrm{cell}}=1.92-0.82=+1.10\ \mathrm V.} \]

(b) Water reduction

The cobalt(II) reductant must belong to a couple with reduction potential below \(-0.41\ \mathrm V\). Only the pentacyanido couple, at \(-0.60\ \mathrm V\), satisfies this condition.

The species are:

  • Pentacyanidocobaltate(II), \(\ce{[Co(CN)5]^3-}\): [Co+2](<-[C-]#N)(<-[C-]#N)(<-[C-]#N)(<-[C-]#N)<-[C-]#N
  • Pentacyanidocobaltate(III), \(\ce{[Co(CN)5]^2-}\): [Co+3](<-[C-]#N)(<-[C-]#N)(<-[C-]#N)(<-[C-]#N)<-[C-]#N

The cyanido ligands coordinate through carbon.

Combine \[ \ce{2[Co(CN)5]^3- -> 2[Co(CN)5]^2- + 2e-} \] with \[ \ce{2H2O + 2e- -> H2 + 2OH-}. \]

The overall water-reduction reaction is \[ \boxed{ \ce{2[Co(CN)5]^3- + 2H2O -> 2[Co(CN)5]^2- + H2 + 2OH-}. } \]

Equivalently, using protons, \[ \ce{2[Co(CN)5]^3- + 2H+ -> 2[Co(CN)5]^2- + H2}. \]

At pH 7, \[ \boxed{E_{\mathrm{cell}}=-0.41-(-0.60)=+0.19\ \mathrm V.} \]

The other four couples lie between \(-0.41\) and \(+0.82\ \mathrm V\), so neither their cobalt(III) forms oxidize water nor their cobalt(II) forms reduce it under the stated potential comparison.

3.7 — Structure of \(\ce{NADP+}\)

The relationship is \[ \ce{NADP+ + H- -> NADPH}. \]

Thus, reverse hydride addition to the reduced nicotinamide ring. Number the ring nitrogen N1; the carboxamide substituent is at C3, and the carbon bearing two hydrogens in Figure 3 is C4.

The required drawing has:

  • An aromatic six-membered pyridinium ring, with a positive charge on N1.
  • The same carboxamide group at C3.
  • One hydrogen at C4, replacing the two hydrogens shown for the reduced form.
  • The same nitrogen–ribose bond, ribose stereochemistry, hydroxyl groups and \(R\) substituent.

One valid Kekulé drawing places double bonds at N1=C2, C3=C4 and C5=C6. Formation of the aromatic ring involves the nitrogen lone pair and rearrangement of the ring’s \(\pi\) bonds.

Oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, \(\ce{NADP+}\), represented with the same abbreviated \(R\) group as the problem:

NC(=O)c1ccc[n+]([C@@H]2O[C@H](C*)[C@@H](O)[C@H]2O)c1

For comparison, the corresponding reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, \(\ce{NADPH}\) fragment is:

NC(=O)C1=CN([C@@H]2O[C@H](C*)[C@@H](O)[C@H]2O)C=CC1

Here * denotes the unchanged \(R\) group in Figure 3, attached through the depicted methylene group. These fragment SMILES retain the β-D-ribofuranosyl stereochemistry. The positive charge specified for the oxidized structure is on the nicotinamide nitrogen; charges within the abbreviated \(R\) group are not represented.

3.8 — Photon requirement and chlorophyll concentration

Use the \(1\ \mathrm{cm^2}\) illuminated face and an optical path length of \(1\ \mathrm{cm}\).

(a) Photon rates

The incident molar photon rate is \[ \dot n_{\gamma,\mathrm{in}} =(100\ \mathrm{nE\,s^{-1}\,cm^{-2}})(1\ \mathrm{cm^2}) =1.00\times10^{-7}\ \mathrm{mol\,s^{-1}}. \]

Therefore, \[ \boxed{ \dot N_{\gamma,\mathrm{in}} =(1.00\times10^{-7})N_{\mathrm A} =6.02\times10^{16}\ \mathrm{photons\,s^{-1}}. } \]

The target production rate is \[ \dot n_{\ce{H2}}=1.00\times10^{-9}\ \mathrm{mol\,s^{-1}}. \]

Each molecule of dihydrogen requires two hydrogen-atom equivalents. With a photon-to-hydrogen-atom efficiency of \(0.20\), the required absorbed photon rate is \[ \dot n_{\gamma,\mathrm{abs}} =\frac{2\dot n_{\ce{H2}}}{\phi} =\frac{2(1.00\times10^{-9})}{0.20} =1.00\times10^{-8}\ \mathrm{mol\,s^{-1}}. \]

Thus, \[ \boxed{ \dot N_{\gamma,\mathrm{abs}} =(1.00\times10^{-8})N_{\mathrm A} =6.02\times10^{15}\ \mathrm{photons\,s^{-1}}. } \]

(b) Chlorophyll concentration

The required absorbed fraction is \[ f_{\mathrm{abs}} =\frac{\dot n_{\gamma,\mathrm{abs}}} {\dot n_{\gamma,\mathrm{in}}} =\frac{10}{100}=0.10. \]

Consequently, the transmitted fraction is \(0.90\), and the decadic absorbance is \[ A=-\log_{10}(0.90)=0.045757. \]

By the Beer–Lambert law, \[ A=\varepsilon c l. \]

Therefore, \[ c=\frac{0.045757} {(8\times10^4\ \mathrm{M^{-1}\,cm^{-1}})(1\ \mathrm{cm})} =5.72\times10^{-7}\ \mathrm M. \]

Hence, \[ \boxed{c\approx5.7\times10^{-7}\ \mathrm M=0.57\ \mathrm{\mu M}.} \]

This uses the stated efficiency as the quantum yield per absorbed photon.

The solution was checked against the official solution.