International Chemistry Olympiad

IChO 2022

Tianjin, China (held remotely) · 9 theory problems with complete solutions

  1. Problem 1: Rapid and Visual Nucleic Acid Testing for COVID-19

    Fast and simple methods for early detection of COVID-19 are urgently needed. Gold nanoparticles-aided detection is one of the promising methods. Gold nanoparticles are widely used as a visible readout for test strips due to their high molar extinction coefficients (molar absorptivity). The color appearance of gold nanoparticles is closely associated with their sizes and dispersity. Generally, the larger the gold nanoparticles, the more reddish the color is. Once the nanoparticles are aggregated, the color shifts from red to blue.

    When the surface of gold nanoparticles is modified with two kinds of single-stranded nucleic acid fragments \(a\) and \(b\), the gold nanoparticles would aggregate in the presence of the target nucleic acid (\(a’b’\)), causing the color change of the solution from red to blue in several minutes (as indicated below). Based on this principle, the target nucleic acids collected from the coronavirus in a sample can be detected.

    Figure 1

    1.1 Indicate the absorption band region of the dispersed gold nanoparticles with an appropriate letter (a-f in the color wheel of Figure 0.1 in General Instructions).

    The Color Wheel

    Figure 2

    Figure 0.1

    1.2 Indicate the change in the absorption spectrum of the gold nanoparticles once they are aggregated. Compared to the absorption wavelength of the dispersed gold nanoparticles, the wavelength of the aggregated nanoparticles

    (a) becomes longer

    (b) becomes shorter

    (c) does not change

    Gold nanoparticles are composed of gold atoms that are closely packed as solid gold (density \(\rho = 19.3\ \mathrm{g\,cm^{-3}}\)).

    1.3 Calculate how many gold atoms (\(N\)) are there in a spherical gold nanoparticle with a diameter of 30.0 nm.

    The synthesis of gold nanoparticles depends on the redox reaction between hydrogen tetrachloroaurate(III) (\(\ce{HAuCl4 * 3H2O}\), \(MW = 394\)) and reducing substances (such as sodium citrate). 5.2 mg of \(\ce{HAuCl4 * 3H2O}\) was completely converted into uniform spherical gold nanoparticles with a diameter of 30.0 nm in a 100.0 mL reaction solution. The absorbance of the resulting red solution was 0.800 measured at 530 nm by a UV-Vis spectrometer.

    1.4 Calculate the molar extinction coefficient (molar absorptivity) of the resulting gold nanoparticles solution at 530 nm per mol of gold nanoparticles. The optical path of the cuvette used is 1 cm. If you failed to get the number of gold atoms (\(N\)) in 1.3 , use \(N = 1.00 \times 10^5\).

    The standard addition method was used for colorimetric detection of the target nucleic acid. The original throat swab sample was collected and divided equally into two portions. After addition of the probe solutions and water (as indicated below), the absorbance of the two resulting solutions was measured at 600 nm separately.

    No. Volume of throat swab sample (mL) Volume of solution of gold nanoparticles modified with nucleic acid fragments (mL) Volume of standard solution containing \(2.0\ \mu\mathrm{g\,mL^{-1}}\) target nucleic acid (mL) Volume of water (mL) Absorbance
    1 0.10 0.80 0.00 0.10 0.400
    2 0.10 0.80 0.10 0.00 0.900

    1.5 Calculate the concentration of the viral nucleic acids in the original throat swab sample.

    Official English text of the problem.

  2. Problem 2: Chromium in Ancient and Modern Times

    Figure 1

    (The photo is from the website of Palace Museum)

    Black glazed porcelain is a special Chinese porcelain and was popular in the Tang and Song dynasties (ca. 1000 years ago). The ceramic ware contained iron oxides as the main color rendering agent, which was mixed with other transition metal oxides to exhibit different color appearance such as auburn, dark brown or black. Currently, the black glazed porcelain is still popular in China.

    The typical black glaze is composed of Fe-containing oxides with a spinel structure. Spinel oxides have the general formula \(\ce{AB2O4}\) and the structure consists of a cubic close packing array of \(\ce{O^{2-}}\) ions in which the A cations occupy one-eighth of the tetrahedral vacancies and the B cations occupy half of the octahedral vacancies, as shown in Figure 2.1(a) for a unit cell.

    Figure 2

    Figure 2.1 Illustration of spinel structure

    The cubic unit cell of a spinel structure can be divided into 8 cubic subunits, and the dashed lines represent the internal edges of the subunits. 4 of the subunits belong to type I, and the other 4 subunits are type II (Figure 2.1(b)). The details of adjacent subunits of type I and type II are shown in Figure 2.1(c).

    2.1 How many cations of type A and B are there in a unit cell?

    The black ceramic glaze with spinel structure can be produced by roasting \(\ce{Fe2O3}\) and \(\ce{Cr2O3}\) in a certain proportion in a reducing atmosphere (reaction (I)). When \(\ce{Fe2O3}\) and \(\ce{Cr2O3}\) are reacted with the mass ratio of 63.6 : 36.4, they completely transform into a pure stoichiometric compound. The product has a spinel structure, in which the tetrahedral A sites are occupied by iron cations only.

    2.2 In reaction (I), which element is reduced?

    2.3 Calculate the numbers of \(\ce{Fe^{3+}}\) and \(\ce{Cr^{3+}}\) in the B sites of one unit cell.

    Besides doping in black ceramic glaze, chromium-containing pigments are used in painting and printing due to the abundant color originating from chromium with different oxidation states, such as +2, +3 and +6. The pigment, chrome green (\(\ce{Cr2O3}\)) can be converted into a series of other compounds (D-G) in the following process, where E, F, G are yellow, orange and red respectively.

    Figure 3

    2.4 Write the chemical formula of E.

    2.5 Write the reaction equation of F \(\rightarrow\) G.

    2.6 Choose the agent which could be H.

    (A) \(\ce{FeSO4}\)

    (B) \(\ce{FeCl3}\)

    (C) \(\ce{ZnSO4}\)

    (D) \(\ce{CuSO4}\)

    The variable valence of chromium is not only important for the production of pigments, but also useful for catalysis. For example, a typical Phillips catalyst for the polymerization of ethylene consists of chromium oxide species grafted onto a porous support material such as amorphous silica. The tetracoordinated Cr(VI) specie is the core in the pre-catalyst (1), which is proposed to be reduced quickly into a six-coordinated Cr(II) species (2) by the ethylene molecules at the beginning. 2 is proposed to further catalyze polymerization of ethylene molecules.

    2.7 The reaction of 1 with ethylene can be traced by UV–vis spectra, which show the light absorption of 1 at \(21500\ \mathrm{cm^{-1}}\) and the light absorption of 2 at \(16700\ \mathrm{cm^{-1}}\) in the visible region, respectively. Choose the appropriate combination of colors of 1 and 2.

    (A) orange and white, respectively

    (B) orange and blue, respectively

    (C) blue and orange, respectively

    (D) blue and white, respectively

    2.8 Assuming that the Cr(II) ion in 2 is located in a regular octahedral crystal field with a splitting energy \(\Delta_{\mathrm{o}}\) of \(16000\ \mathrm{cm^{-1}}\), draw the configurations of d electrons of the Cr(II) ion in 2, and calculate the crystal field stabilization energy (CFSE) for the Cr(II) ion in 2. (Note: The pairing energy \(P\) for Cr(II) in 2 is \(23500\ \mathrm{cm^{-1}}\).)

    2.9 Coordination compounds/ions exhibit paramagnetism when containing unpaired electrons, and the corresponding magnetic moment (\(\mu\)) of transition metal cations is calculated by the function \(\mu=\sqrt{n(n+2)}\mu_B\) where \(n\) is the number of unpaired electrons. Calculate the magnetic moment in term of \(\mu_B\) for the Cr(II) ion in 2.

    Official English text of the problem.

  3. Problem 3: Capture and Transformation of Carbon Dioxide

    Climate change is one of the most critical global challenges nowadays. The increase of \(\ce{CO2}\) concentration in the atmosphere has been recognized as the primary driver of global warming. The study of the capture and transformation of \(\ce{CO2}\) has attracted considerable attention.

    Direct air capture (DAC) technology which aims to extract \(\ce{CO2}\) directly from ambient air is promising. The conventional method of DAC is wet scrubbing with alkaline hydroxide solutions (typically \(\ce{NaOH}\)), where \(\ce{CO2}\) in air is absorbed till pH ≈ 10 (step 1). The spent sorbent is regenerated by dosing calcium hydroxide into the system (step 2). The white precipitate A received in step 2 decomposes at \(700\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\), giving rise to \(\ce{CO2}\) and another white compound B (step 3). Finally, calcium hydroxide can be generated by the hydration of B. This process is highly energy-demanding. (\(\ce{H2CO3}\): \(K_{\mathrm{a1}}=4.5\times10^{-7}\), \(K_{\mathrm{a2}}=4.7\times10^{-11}\)).

    3.1 Write the formulas for A and B respectively.

    3.2 Write the balanced equations of all possible reactions in steps 1-3. \(\ce{NaOH}\) solution is used as sorbent.

    Recently, an electrochemical process was developed for regenerating the alkaline solution in the wet scrubbing process for DAC application, and pure \(\ce{CO2}\) gas could be recovered that is suitable for storage or utilization. The process is based on a \(\ce{H2}\)-recycling electrochemical system (HRES), as shown in Figure 3.1.

    Figure 1

    Figure 3.1 Schematic drawing of the experimental setup

    The electrochemical cell contains three compartments: an anode region (A), an acidifying region (B), and a cathode region (C). They are separated by ion-selective permeable membranes M1 and M2. During the operation, protons produced from \(\ce{H2}\) oxidation at the anode are transported to the acidifying compartment where the spent solution (\(\ce{Na2CO3}\)-\(\ce{NaHCO3}\)) coming from the air contactor is fed. The decreasing pH of the solution leads to the conversions of carbonate to hydrocarbonate (reaction 1) and hydrocarbonate to carbonic acid (reaction 2). When the solution is saturated by dissolved \(\ce{CO2}\) (solubility: \(0.033\ \mathrm{mol\,L^{-1}}\)), a further pH decrease leads to the release of \(\ce{CO2}\) gas (reaction 3). \(\ce{H2}\) generated in the cathode is introduced to the anode and the solution from the cathode can be reused as a DAC absorbent.

    3.3 Write the electrode reactions in the anode (A) and the cathode (C) respectively.

    3.4 Write the balanced equations for the reactions 1–3 in the acidifying region (B).

    3.5 Check all that correctly describe the movement of cations during the system operation.

    (a) \(\ce{H+}\) ions permeate through M1 from A to B.

    (b) \(\ce{H+}\) ions permeate through M2 from B to C.

    (c) \(\ce{Na+}\) ions permeate through M1 from B to A.

    (d) \(\ce{Na+}\) ions permeate through M2 from B to C.

    (e) Both \(\ce{H+}\) and \(\ce{Na+}\) ions can permeate through M1and M2.

    The cell works at a steady state when the current passing through the cell is \(2.00\ \mathrm{A}\) and the flow rate of the solution (\(0.050\ \mathrm{mol\,L^{-1}}\ \ce{Na2CO3}\) - \(0.10\ \mathrm{mol\,L^{-1}}\ \ce{NaHCO3}\)) into the region B is \(10.0\ \mathrm{mL\,min^{-1}}\). The pH in the anode compartment is maintained at 1 in the steady state.

    3.6 Calculate the generation rate of \(\ce{CO2}\) gas (in \(\mathrm{mmol\,min^{-1}}\)).

    Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs), a sub-class of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are promising materials for the capture and utilization of \(\ce{CO2}\). The structures of ZIFs resemble zeolites. They form 3D frameworks with tetrahedrally coordinated metal ions (e.g. \(\ce{Zn^2+}\), \(\ce{Co^2+}\)) bridged by imidazolate (\(\ce{Im-}\)) and its derivatives. As the conjugated base of imidazole (\(\ce{HIm}\)), imidazolate anion binds to metal cations (M) by its two N atoms. The fact that the \(\ce{M-Im-M}\) angle is similar to the \(\ce{Si-O-Si}\) angle (145°) preferred in zeolites (as shown below) has led to the synthesis of a large number of ZIFs with zeolite-type tetrahedral topologies.

    Figure 2

    ZIF-8 is one of the representative ZIFs, which adopts a sodalite framework (SOD), as shown in Figure 3.2. ZIF-8 was firstly synthesized by Chinese scientists Xiao-Ming Chen et al. (they named it as MAF-4) by the reaction of \(\ce{Zn^2+}\) with 2-methylimidazole (\(\ce{CH3(C3N2H3)}\), \(\ce{HmIm}\)). It crystalizes in the cubic system with the cell parameter \(a=1.632\ \mathrm{nm}\) for a solvent-free phase with the effective pore diameter (shown by the inside virtual sphere in Figure 3.2d) of \(1.16\ \mathrm{nm}\).

    Figure 3

    Figure 3.2 Topology of SOD and structure of ZIF-8

    (a) Topology of SOD cage;

    (b) SOD cage in ZIF-8 formed by \(\ce{Zn^2+}\) (at the centers of the tetrahedra) and imidazolate (H atoms are omitted for clarity);

    (c) Framework of SOD with the unit cell shown by the square box;

    (d) Some of the pores are highlighted by virtual spheres in ZIF-8.

    Note: .If you wish, you may use the symbol "HmIm" and "mIm" representing 2-methylimidazole and 2-methylimidazolate respectively in solving the following questions.

    3.7 Write the formula of the single sodalite cage.

    3.8 Write the composition of the unit cell of ZIF-8.

    3.9 Calculate the inner surface area (\(S\)) of the pores (modeled by the virtual spheres) of 1 g ZIF-8 (in \(\mathrm{m^2}\)). If you failed to get the composition of the unit cell, use 3500 as the formula weight of the unit cell.

    3.10 Calculate the porosity \(R\) of ZIF-8 (\(R\) is the ratio of pore volume to the actual volume of the material) and the pore volume of 1 g ZIF-8 (\(V_p\), in \(\mathrm{cm^3}\)).

    ZIF-8 can also act as a catalyst to promote the conversion of \(\ce{CO2}\) to high value-added chemicals. One of the most promising routes for \(\ce{CO2}\) fixation is the preparation of cyclic carbonates via \(\ce{CO2}\) cycloaddition. An example is shown as below:

    Figure 4

    A mechanism of catalytic conversion of \(\ce{CO2}\) to cyclic carbonate over ZIF-8 catalyst is proposed:

    Figure 5

    3.11 If ZIF-8 provides acid sites in the above catalytic process, complete the mechanism by choosing the reasonable intermediates from the following species:

    Figure 6

    Choose the intermediates corresponding to I and II respectively.

    ZIF-8 shows a relatively high thermal stability. However, a recent study revealed that its structure would be destroyed if applied in a wet acidic environment. The co-existence of \(\ce{CO2}\) and \(\ce{H2O}\) with ZIF-8 resulted in the formation of \(\ce{ZnCO3}\).

    3.12 Write the balanced equation of ZIF-8 with \(\ce{CO2}\) and \(\ce{H2O}\).

    Official English text of the problem.

  4. Problem 4: A New Journey for Ancient Sulfur

    Figure 1

    Sulfur has been known and used since the ancient times. Nowadays, sulfur is widely used in chemical production and pharmaceutical industry as an inexpensive chemical raw material.

    Pyrite (\(\ce{FeS2}\)) is commonly used as a raw material in the industrial production of elemental sulfur. By heating pyrite in the presence of limited air supply, the theoretical yield of elemental sulfur is 100% and a black magnetic oxide (\(\ce{Fe3O4}\)) is the other product.

    4.1 Write the balanced reaction equation that describes the above conversion.

    In addition to sulfur, a small amount of \(\ce{SO2}\) is generated as a by-product during the actual process. This reaction can be monitored by measuring the amount of \(\ce{SO2}\). The following recipe is used for the monitoring:

    Raw ore powder is heated in a temperature-controlled tube furnace. The generated \(\ce{SO2}\) is absorbed by 2 mol L\(^{-1}\) \(\ce{NaOH}\) solution. When the reaction is completed, the solution is transferred to a 500 mL volumetric flask and diluted by distilled water to the mark. 25.00 mL of this diluted solution is then added into an iodine flask containing 50.00 mL 0.05122 mol L\(^{-1}\) \(\ce{I2}\) standard solution and 5 mL 20% \(\ce{H2SO4}\) solution. After maintaining the iodine flask in dark for 5 min, the solution is titrated with 0.1012 mol L\(^{-1}\) \(\ce{Na2S2O3}\) standard solution. When the color of the solution turns light brown, 3 mL 0.5% starch indicator is added. Continue the titration until the blue color disappears.

    4.2 Write the balanced reaction equations involving \(\ce{I2}\) in the above measurement.

    4.3 In such a test experiment starting from pyrite, 17.6 g of elemental sulfur was collected. The analysis of the by-product gases according to the above procedure resulted in the consumption of 18.47 mL of \(\ce{Na2S2O3}\) standard solution. Assuming that no other sulfur containing species were produced, calculate what percentage of the sulfur in pyrite was lost as the by-product?

    The lithium-sulfur battery is a compelling energy storage system because its high theoretical energy density exceeds conventional Li-ion batteries. The net reaction of a lithium-sulfur battery can be simplified as: \(\ce{16Li + S8 -> 8Li2S}\). Sulfur is the cathode and metallic lithium is the anode active material during discharge.

    4.4 Write the balanced equations for reactions that take place at cathode (a) and anode (b) during discharge.

    4.5 Calculate the mass ratio of the cathode active material to the anode active material, according to the net battery reaction.

    A lithium-ion battery (LIB) that possesses an average operating voltage of 3.8 V and a deliverable capacity of 3110 mAh can provide energy for a mobile phone to play videos continuously for 22 hours upon a full charge.

    4.6 If the LIB is replaced by an ideal lithium-sulfur battery pack, which has an average operating voltage of 4.2 V and contains 23 g sulfur as the active electrode material that can react stoichiometrically during discharge, calculate how many hours the new battery pack will provide energy for the phone to play videos continuously after a full charge.

    Elemental sulfur generally exists as \(\ce{S8}\) molecules. In real lithium-sulfur batteries, \(\ce{S8}\) is not directly reduced to \(\ce{Li2S}\) during discharge, but it undergoes stepwise reactions generating different soluble lithium polysulfides (\(\ce{Li2S_n}\), \(n=3–8\)). These lithium polysulfides could diffuse to the anode and corrode it, which results in the loss of active electrode materials. This phenomenon is called "shuttle effect".

    4.7 Write the balanced reaction equation for the corrosion of anode by soluble lithium polysulfides (\(\ce{Li2S_n}\)) that produces \(\ce{Li2S}\).

    In order to suppress the "shuttle effect", the forms of polysulfides in an electrolyte have been extensively studied. \(\ce{Li2S6}\) is one of the most representative intermediate products:

    Figure 2

    A theoretical study shows that two conformers with comparable energies, \(\ce{Li2S6}(I)\) and \(\ce{Li2S6}(II)\) coexist in 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME), a common electrolyte solvent in lithium-sulfur batteries. The dissociation of \(\ce{Li2S6}\) in DME is shown below:

    Figure 3

    Chemical equilibria of \(\ce{Li2S6}\), \(\ce{LiS6^-}\), \(\ce{S6^{2-}}\) and \(\ce{LiS3^{\bullet}}\) in DME

    Table 4.1 Dissociation Gibbs energies (\(\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)) of different reactions in DME (298.15 K, 1 bar)

    \(\Delta G_{\mathrm{d1}}^{\ominus}(I)\) \(\Delta G_{\mathrm{d1}}^{\ominus}(II)\) \(\Delta G_{\mathrm{d2}}^{\ominus}\) \(\Delta G_{\mathrm{dr}}^{\ominus}(I)\) \(\Delta G_{\mathrm{dr}}^{\ominus}(II)\)
    20.68 18.92 100.55 45.13 43.37

    4.8 Using the data from Table 4.1, calculate the equilibrium concentration ratio of two conformers in DME (298.15 K, 1 bar), \(\dfrac{\ce{Li2S6}(II)}{\ce{Li2S6}(I)}\).

    4.9 Using the data from Table 4.1, calculate the apparent dissociation constant of \(\ce{Li2S6 -> Li+ + LiS6^-}\) in DME (298.15 K, 1 bar).

    4.10 Sort the following equilibrium concentrations in decreasing order: \([\ce{Li2S6}]\), \([\ce{LiS6^-}]\), \([\ce{S6^{2-}}]\), \([\ce{LiS3^{\bullet}}]\) in DME.

    4.11 The standard reduction potential of metallic lithium in water at 298.15 K and 1 bar is:

    \[ E^{\ominus}(\ce{Li+}/\ce{Li})=-3.040\ \mathrm{V} \]

    The standard solvation Gibbs energies of gaseous \(\ce{Li+(g)}\) to \(\ce{Li+(sol)}\) in different solvents.

    \(\ce{Li+}(\ce{H2O})\) \(\ce{Li+}(\mathrm{DME})\)
    \(\Delta G^{\ominus}/\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\) −116.9 −114.6

    Calculate the standard reduction potential of metallic lithium electrode in DME.

    Studies have shown that electromotive force of a lithium-sulfur battery would be increased by replacing DME with dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). Therefore, the forms of polysulfides in DMSO also attract researchers' attention.

    In a test, a certain amount of \(\ce{Li2S}\) and 4.81 mg sulfur powder were added into 10.00 mL DMSO, then heated and stirred until completely dissolved (ignoring the change in volume). Suppose that only the following polysulfides were present in the DMSO: \(\ce{S3^{\bullet-}}\), \(\ce{S4^{2-}}\), \(\ce{S5^{2-}}\), \(\ce{S6^{2-}}\), \(\ce{S7^{2-}}\), \(\ce{S8^{2-}}\). The equilibrium concentration ratio of the sulfur containing species was:

    \[ [\ce{S3^{\bullet-}}]:[\ce{S4^{2-}}]:[\ce{S5^{2-}}]: [\ce{S6^{2-}}]:[\ce{S7^{2-}}]:[\ce{S8^{2-}}] =17.50:1.00:4.50:55.00:5.00:0.75 \]

    4.12 Calculate the original mass \(m\) (in mg) of \(\ce{Li2S}\) added to DMSO.

    Official English text of the problem.

  5. Problem 5: Interconversion among Nitrogen Oxides

    15% of the total

    Question 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 Total
    Points 4 4 2 4 3 8 4 6 4 6 45
    Score

    Nitrogen oxides (including \(\ce{N2O}\), \(\ce{NO}\), \(\ce{NO2}\), \(\ce{N2O4}\) and etc., usually written as \(\ce{NO_x}\)) are one of the main air pollutants that can cause a series of problems such as ozone depletion, acid rain, photochemical smog, and greenhouse effect. Therefore, the emission and conversion of \(\ce{NO_x}\) must be controlled to improve air quality. Here let us investigate the oxidation of \(\ce{NO}\) to \(\ce{NO2}\) via the reaction of \(\ce{2NO + O2 -> 2NO2}\).

    Part A

    It is generally accepted that this reaction proceeds through the following mechanism in the atmosphere:

    Figure 1
    Figure 2

    Reaction (1) and (2) and the reverse of reaction (1) are elementary reactions. Reaction (1) is a pre-equilibrium reaction, and its equilibrium constant in terms of concentrations is denoted as \(K_{c1}\). Reaction (2) is the rate-determining step of the overall reaction, and its rate constant is \(k_2\).

    5.1 Deduce the rate expression for the overall reaction of \(\ce{2NO + O2 -> 2NO2}\) as a function of \([\ce{NO}]\), \([\ce{O2}]\), \(K_{c1}\) and \(k_2\). 4.0 pt

    The temperature dependence of \(K_{c1}\) could be approximately described as \(\ln K_{c1}=M-(N/T)\) (\(M\) and \(N\) are constants). The change of \(k_2\) with temperature follows the Arrhenius equation with the pre-exponential factor of \(A_2\) and apparent activation energy of \(E_{a,2}\). Assume that \(E_{a,2}\) and \(A_2\) are independent of the temperature.

    5.2 Deduce the expressions for the pre-exponential factor (\(A_+\)) and apparent activation energy (\(E_{a+}\)) of the reaction of \(\ce{2NO + O2 -> 2NO2}\) as functions of \(M\), \(N\), \(A_2\) and \(E_{a,2}\). 4.0 pt

    The apparent rate constant (\(k_+\)) of the overall reaction is \(6.63\times10^5\ \mathrm{L^2\,mol^{-2}\,min^{-1}}\) at 600 K, and its apparent activation energy is \(1.20\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\).

    5.3 Calculate the rate constant (in \(\mathrm{L^2\,mol^{-2}\,min^{-1}}\)) of this reaction at 700 K. 2.0 pt

    The standard enthalpies of formation (\(\Delta_{\mathrm f}H_{\mathrm m}^{\ominus}\)) and standard entropies (\(S_{\mathrm m}^{\ominus}\)) at 298.15 K are as follows:

    \(\ce{NO(g)}\) \(\ce{O2(g)}\) \(\ce{NO2(g)}\)
    \(\Delta_{\mathrm f}H_{\mathrm m}^{\ominus}\) (\(\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)) 91.3 33.1
    \(S_{\mathrm m}^{\ominus}\) (\(\mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}\)) 210.8 205.2 240.1

    The standard reaction enthalpy and entropy changes of \(\ce{2NO + O2 -> 2NO2}\) can be regarded as temperature independent. All the gases are taken to be ideal for the following questions.

    5.4 Calculate the thermodynamic equilibrium constant (\(K_p^{\ominus}\)) of this reaction at 600 K. 4.0 pt

    5.5 Calculate the standard internal energy change \(\Delta_{\mathrm r}U_{\mathrm m}^{\ominus}\) (in \(\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)) of this reaction at 600 K. 3.0 pt

    Experimental observation shows that the rate of the reaction of \(\ce{2NO2 -> 2NO + O2}\) is independent on the concentration of \(\ce{NO}\) and \(\ce{O2}\).

    5.6 Deduce the expression of the rate for this reaction (the apparent rate constant could be directly used as \(k_-\)) and calculate the value of \(k_-\) apparent at 600 K.
    (If you failed to find the \(K_p^{\ominus}(600\ \mathrm K)\) in question 5.4, use \(K_p^{\ominus}(600\ \mathrm K)=350.0\)) 8.0 pt

    \(\ce{NO2}\) gas is introduced to a container with a fixed volume which is held at 600 K and allowed to reach equilibrium. 20 percent of the reactant is converted to \(\ce{NO}\) and \(\ce{O2}\). All the gases are taken to be ideal.

    5.7 Calculate the total pressure of this reaction system at equilibrium. (If you failed to find the \(K_p^{\ominus}(600\ \mathrm K)\) in question 5.4, use \(K_p^{\ominus}(600\ \mathrm K)=350.0\)) 4.0 pt

    Part B

    Industrial exhaust is a main source of \(\ce{NO_x}\). One of the approaches to reduce the emission of \(\ce{NO_x}\) is through the oxidation of \(\ce{NO}\) to \(\ce{NO2}\) and the subsequent absorption of the formed \(\ce{NO2}\) by absorbents. However, because of the low concentration of \(\ce{NO}\) in exhaust, its spontaneous oxidation in the atmosphere is too slow to meet the demand of industry. Generally, solid catalysts are used to accelerate this reaction. The \(\ce{NO}\) oxidation proceeds on the surface of a specific catalyst (CatX) through the following mechanism (adsorption site is denoted as Site):

    Figure 3
    Figure 4
    Figure 5
    Figure 6

    Assume that the adsorptions of \(\ce{NO}\), \(\ce{NO2}\) and \(\ce{O}\) (from the dissociation of \(\ce{O2}\)) cannot proceed beyond a monolayer coverage, and these species are adsorbed by the same kind of surface sites. Their fractional coverages (\(\theta\), defined as the ratio of the number of adsorption sites occupied to the number of total adsorption sites) are denoted as \(\theta_{\ce{NO}}\), \(\theta_{\ce{NO2}}\) and \(\theta_{\ce{O}}\), respectively. Thus, the fraction of unoccupied adsorption sites (\(\theta_v\)) is \(\theta_v=1-\theta_{\ce{NO}}-\theta_{\ce{NO2}}-\theta_{\ce{O}}\). Assume that all the adsorption and desorption processes are much faster than reaction (S3).

    5.8 Deduce the expression for \(\theta_v\) as a function of \([\ce{NO}]\), \([\ce{O2}]\), \([\ce{NO2}]\) and the rate constants involved in reactions (S1)–(S4). 6.0 pt

    5.9 Choose the correct expression for the rate of \(\ce{2NO(g) + O2(g) -> 2NO2(g)}\) at the beginning of the reaction. Assume that the concentration and adsorption of \(\ce{NO2}\) are both negligible. 4.0 pt

    \[ \text{(A)}\quad r_{\mathrm{S}+}= \frac{ k_{\mathrm{S}+3}(k_{\mathrm{S}+1}/k_{\mathrm{S}-1})^{0.5} [\ce{NO}][\ce{O2}]^{0.5} }{ 1+(k_{\mathrm{S}+1}[\ce{O2}]/k_{\mathrm{S}-1})^{0.5} +k_{\mathrm{S}+2}[\ce{NO}]/k_{\mathrm{S}-2} } \]

    \[ \text{(B)}\quad r_{\mathrm{S}+}= \frac{ 0.5k_{\mathrm{S}+3}(k_{\mathrm{S}+1}/k_{\mathrm{S}-1})^{0.5} [\ce{NO}][\ce{O2}]^{0.5} }{ 1+(k_{\mathrm{S}+1}[\ce{O2}]/k_{\mathrm{S}-1})^{0.5} +k_{\mathrm{S}+2}[\ce{NO}]/k_{\mathrm{S}-2} } \]

    \[ \text{(C)}\quad r_{\mathrm{S}+}= \frac{ k_{\mathrm{S}+3}(k_{\mathrm{S}+1}/k_{\mathrm{S}-1}) [\ce{NO}][\ce{O2}]^{0.5} }{ 1+k_{\mathrm{S}+1}[\ce{O2}]/k_{\mathrm{S}-1} +k_{\mathrm{S}+2}[\ce{NO}]/k_{\mathrm{S}-2} } \]

    \[ \text{(D)}\quad r_{\mathrm{S}+}= \frac{ k_{\mathrm{S}+4}k_{\mathrm{S}+3}(k_{\mathrm{S}+1}/k_{\mathrm{S}-1})^{0.5} [\ce{NO}][\ce{O2}]^{0.5}/k_{\mathrm{S}-4} }{ 1+k_{\mathrm{S}+1}([\ce{O2}]/k_{\mathrm{S}-1})^{0.5} +k_{\mathrm{S}+2}[\ce{NO}]/k_{\mathrm{S}-2} } \]

    For some catalysts, the surface reaction proceeds via an alternative way instead of reaction (S3):

    Figure 7

    This step is also rate-determining for the overall reaction.

    A catalyst (CatY) is used to promote the reaction of \(\ce{2NO + O2 -> 2NO2}\). When the temperature and \(\ce{NO}\) concentration are constant, the initial reaction rate changes with the concentration of \(\ce{O2}\) as follows:

    Figure 8

    5.10 Choose a mechanism that is consistent with this curve. 6.0 pt

    (A) S3
    (B) S5
    (C) cannot be determined

    Official English text of the problem.

  6. Problem 6: Enabling Phosphines

    Phosphines are phosphorus analogues of amines. They also carry a lone pair of electrons at the phosphorus atom and thus exhibit Lewis basicity or nucleophilicity. But in contrast with tertiary amines, chiral phosphines like P1 with three different substituents can be isolated as single enantiomers. Chiral phosphines are often used as chiral ligands in transition metal catalysis.

    Figure 1

    6.1 Using \(R/S\) symbol, assign the absolute configuration of P1.

    In the past two decades, as organocatalysis grew rapidly, a large number of nucleophilic phosphinecatalyzed synthetic reactions have emerged. Among them, one of the most famous phosphine-catalyzed reactions is the Lu (3+2) cycloaddition reaction, which was first developed by Chinese scientist Xiyan Lu. For instance, under the catalysis of triphenylphosphine, ethyl allenoate 1 and methyl acrylate 2 smoothly produce two cyclopentene derivatives 3 (major) and 4 (minor).

    Lu (3+2) cycloaddition:

    Figure 2

    In a generally accepted mechanism, the Lu (3+2) reaction is a formal cycloaddition reaction. Initially, the catalyst triphenylphosphine engages in a nucleophilic addition to ethyl allenoate 1 to generate a zwitterionic intermediate A, which subsequently cyclizes with methyl acrylate 2 by two paths. In the path leading to compound 3, an in situ generated phosphorus ylide intermediate B reversibly converts into intermediate C via proton transfer; C undergoes an elimination to deliver the major product 3 and release the phosphine catalyst. In the path leading to compound 4, a phosphorus ylide intermediate B′ is formed, which also reversibly converts into intermediate C′ via proton transfer; C′ undergoes an elimination to give the minor product 4 and regenerate the phosphine catalyst.

    Mechanism:

    Figure 3

    6.2 Draw the two major resonance structures that make up the shown resonance hybrid A (the involvement of ester group is not considered, and stereochemistry is not required).

    6.3 Draw the structures of intermediates B′ and C′ (stereochemistry is not required).

    Under similar conditions, ethyl allenoate 1 and diethyl fumarate 5 readily deliver the corresponding cycloaddition product 6.

    Figure 4

    6.4 Draw the structure of compound 6 (stereochemistry is not required).

    Asymmetric Lu (3+2) cycloaddition reaction can be readily realized by utilizing chiral phosphine catalysts. For example, under the catalysis of a chiral bicyclic phosphine P2, ethyl allenoate 1 and methyl acrylate 2 smoothly delivered an enantio-enriched cycloaddition product 3 in 80% ee (enantiomeric excess).

    Asymmetric Lu (3+2) cycloaddition:

    Figure 5

    Calculation equation of ee:

    \[ \mathrm{ee} =\frac{n_{\mathrm{major}}-n_{\mathrm{minor}}} {n_{\mathrm{major}}+n_{\mathrm{minor}}}\times100\% \]

    \(n_{\mathrm{major}}\) = the amount of major enantiomer

    \(n_{\mathrm{minor}}\) = the amount of minor enantiomer

    6.5 Mark the chirality centers in the chiral phosphine P2 by using asterisks. (Note: points will be deducted for every wrong asterisk until 0 points)

    6.6 Give the ratio of \(n_{\mathrm{major}}/n_{\mathrm{minor}}\) of product 3.

    Lu (3+2) cycloaddition reaction is a versatile tool in organic synthesis. For example, it was successfully used to synthesize (–)-hinesol, an important component of the Chinese medicinal herb Chang Zhu (Atractylodes lancea var Chinensis). Under the catalysis of \(\ce{PPh3}\), a chiral cyclohexanone 7 cyclized with tertbutyl allenoate 8, affording a major product 9 and three minor products 10, 11 and 12. Minor products 10–12 are all the isomers of 9. Compound 9 could be readily transformed into (–)-hinesol by a multistep process.

    Figure 6
    Figure 7
    Figure 8

    6.7 In the following compounds, choose which one does not belong to the minor products 10–12.

    Figure 9

    Official English text of the problem.

  7. Problem 7: Organic Molecules in Life

    The synthesis of complex peptides and proteins is a challenging task. On September 17, 1965, Chinese scientists synthesized crystalline bovine insulin artificially for the first time, marking a crucial step in the journey of exploring the secret of life and opening the era of protein synthesis.

    Figure 1

    Stamp issued on the 50th anniversary (2015) of the first synthesis of crystalline bovine insulin.

    Coupling of carboxylic acid groups with amine groups to forge an amide bond is the most elementary reaction in the synthesis of peptides and proteins. Allenone 2 was reported to be able to activate the carboxylic acid 1 under mild reaction conditions forming the intermediate 3. Intermediate 3 then reacts with amine 4 to give amide 5 with high yield, along with the byproduct 6.

    Figure 2

    Similarly, N-ethynyl-N-methyl-p-toluenesulfonamide (MYTsA) with its major resonance structure 7 (involvement of Ts group is not considered) can activate carboxylic acid in the same way as allenone 2.

    Figure 3

    7.1 Draw the structures of 7, intermediate 9 and compound 12. Show the stereochemistry of any stereocenters.

    As the length of peptide chain grows, formation of amide bonds becomes more difficult, and conventional condensation methods are not applicable in the synthesis of proteins. In the first synthesis of crystalline bovine insulin, a method based on the chemistry of acylhydrazine 13 was developed to achieve the challenging amide coupling between two peptides. As the following equations, compound 15 reacts with 16 smoothly in the presence of triethylamine.

    Figure 4

    7.2 Draw the structures of compounds 15 and 16.

    In addition to de novo synthesis, scientists can modify existing proteins. Although there are multiple reactive sites on the surface of protein, such as amino groups, thiol groups, and carboxyl groups, the most nucleophilic thiol groups are the preferred site when the protein is treated with electrophilic reagents such as N-phenyl maleimide 18 via Michael addition.

    Figure 5

    Under mild basic conditions (pH = 7.5), reagent 19 was proposed to react with the thiol group of protein 20 to give a neutral intermediate 21 which is attacked by hydroxide to give compound 22. Compound 22 can equilibrate with an acyclic form 23, and subsequently react with another protein 20. The resulting major product can exist either in the acyclic form 24 or in the cyclic form 25 in a similar way as the equilibration between 22 and 23.

    Figure 6

    7.3 Draw the structures of intermediate 21, compounds 24 and 25. Stereochemistry is not required.

    Official English text of the problem.

  8. Problem 8: Amazing Chiral Spiro Catalyst

    Chiral compounds are important for human health, for example, more than 50% of the medicines currently in clinical use are single enantiomers of chiral molecules. However, synthesizing chiral molecules in enantio-enriched form is a great challenge. Professor Qilin Zhou's team in Nankai University in China developed a series of chiral spiro catalysts with high activity, raising the efficiency of asymmetric synthesis to a new height, and being widely used in the pharmaceutical industry. These catalysts can give up to (reach up to) 99.9% ee and can be used down to 0.00002 mol% loading. This research result won the first prize of the 2019 National Natural Science Award of China.

    Figure 1

    Note:

    \(\ce{Ar} = 3,\,5\text{-}(\ce{^{t}Bu})_2\ce{C6H3}\)

    Part A

    The synthetic route of the chiral ligand SpiroPAP is shown in the following scheme.

    Figure 2

    Note:

    eq = equivalent

    \(\ce{Ar} = 3,\,5\text{-}(\ce{^{t}Bu})_2\ce{C6H3}\)

    8.1 Draw the structures of 1, 2, 4, 5. (Stereochemistry is not considered).

    8.2 From the following reagents, which reagent A can NOT be used for the transformation of 8 to 9?

    (a) \(\ce{NaBH(OAc)3}\)

    (b) \(\ce{NaBH3CN}\)

    (c) \(\ce{NH2NH2}\), \(\ce{NaOH}\)

    (d) \(\ce{NaBH4}\)

    The racemic spiro compound 6 reacts with (–)-menthyl chloroformate (10) to generate compounds 11a and 11b, which can be separated by column chromatography, followed by hydrazinolysis to obtain optically pure (+)-6 and (–)-6.

    Figure 3

    Note:

    eq = equivalent

    8.3 Choose the correct statement below.

    (a) Compounds 11a and 11b are a pair of enantiomers.

    (b) Compounds 11a and 11b are a pair of diastereomers.

    (c) Compounds 11a and 11b are a pair of cis-trans isomers.

    (d) Compounds 11a and 11b are a pair of conformational isomers.

    Part B

    The Ir-SpiroPAP was prepared by reaction of SpiroPAP with \(\ce{[Ir(cod)Cl]2}\) (cod is cycloocta-1,5-diene) in MeOH under hydrogen as shown below.

    Figure 4

    Note:

    \(\ce{Ar} = 3,\,5\text{-}(\ce{^{t}Bu})_2\ce{C6H3}\)

    8.4 Write the oxidation number of Ir in the catalyst Ir-SpiroPAP.

    8.5 Write the number of valence electrons of d orbitals for metal Ir in the catalyst Ir-SpiroPAP.

    The chiral spiro catalyst Ir-SpiroPAP was used for the asymmetric total synthesis of Mulinane-type diterpene 22 as shown below.

    Figure 5

    8.6 Draw the structures of 15 and 16, including the appropriate stereochemistry.

    8.7 From the following reagents, choose the best for B.

    (a) \(\ce{MeLi/CeCl3}\)

    (b) \(\ce{MeLi/CuI}\)

    (c) \(\ce{MePh3P+ I-}\), \(\ce{^{n}BuLi}\)

    (d) \(\ce{Me3S+ I-}\), \(\ce{NaH}\)

    8.8 From the following reagents, choose the best for C.

    (a) \(\ce{MeLi/CeCl3}\)

    (b) \(\ce{MeLi/CuI}\)

    (c) \(\ce{MePh3P+ I-}\), \(\ce{^{n}BuLi}\)

    (d) \(\ce{Me3S+ I-}\), \(\ce{NaH}\)

    Official English text of the problem.

  9. Problem 9: Total Synthesis of Capitulactone

    The plant of Curculigo capitulata grows in the Southern China and has long been used in traditional Chinese herbal medicine for the treatment of many diseases. Capitulactone (1) was isolated from the roots of Curculigo capitulata. Its structure with absolute configuration was unambiguously established by a combination of spectroscopic data and total synthesis.

    Figure 1

    Curculigo capitulata

    Figure 2

    Capitulactone (1)

    The total synthesis of 1 began with the iodination of commercially available 4-bromoveratrole 2 through a key intermediate 12 as shown in the following scheme.

    Figure 3

    Note:

    cat = catalyst

    eq = equivalent

    9.1 Draw the structures of compounds 3-5, 8, 9 and 11 and show the stereochemistry of any stereocenters.

    (R)-Epichlorohydrin (7) was prepared from (+)-mannitol (13) through a route as shown below.

    Figure 4

    Note:

    eq = equivalent

    conc = concentrated

    9.2 From the following conditions, choose the best for A.

    (a) Pyridine

    (b) 5% \(\ce{KOH/H2O}\)

    (c) 1% \(\ce{HCl/H2O}\)

    (d) Anhydrous \(\ce{ZnCl2}\)

    9.3 Draw the structures of intermediate products 15, 16, 18 and 19 and show the stereochemistry of any stereocenters.

    The diketal 14 can also be prepared by treating (+)-mannitol (13) with 2-methoxypropene (23) in the presence of catalytic amount of tolunesulfonic acid (TsOH) in anhydrous toluene. The model reaction is shown below.

    Figure 5
    Figure 6

    9.4 The proposed mechanism for this reaction involves key intermediates (I-V) as shown above, choose the correct order of the formation of the key intermediates during the reaction process.

    (a) I, II, III, IV, V

    (b) III, II, I, V, IV

    (c) III, I, II, IV, V

    (d) III, I, II, V, IV

    Official English text of the problem.