IChO 2023 · Theory problem 1

Molecular Imaging

Molecular imaging is a powerful tool in medical diagnostics. The nuclear isomer \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\) (m = metastable) of the isotope \(\ce{^{99g}Tc}\) (g = ground state) has excellent radiation properties (\(\gamma\)-emitter, \(t_{1/2}=6.015\ \mathrm{h}\)) for radioimaging. \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\) is obtained by \(\beta^-\) decay of a mother nuclide in a so-called technetium generator as \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\)-pertechnetate \(\ce{[^{99m}TcO4]^-}\).

1.1 Identify the mother nuclide (A) of \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\) and the emitted particle (B).

Figure 1

1.2 Provide the oxidation states of the radiometal in the following \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\)-probes.

Figure 2
Figure 3

The redox potentials of the group seven elements manganese (\(\ce{Mn}\)), technetium (\(\ce{Tc}\)) and rhenium (\(\ce{Re}\)) follow the general trend in the periodic tables (see Figure 2 below).

Figure 4

Figure 2

1.3 Calculate the two missing redox potentials i and ii.

1.4 Compare \(\ce{[MnO4]^-}\), \(\ce{[TcO4]^-}\) and \(\ce{[ReO4]^-}\). Chose the strongest oxidizing agent.

1.5 Based on the values indicated by Figure 2 in the question sheet, select if \(\ce{TcO2}\) would disproportionate to \(\ce{Tc}\) and \(\ce{TcO4^2-}\) under acidic conditions.

\(\ce{Tc}\) and \(\ce{Re}\) complexes at the oxidation state +V (\(d^2\) systems) which contain a terminal oxo- (\(\ce{O=}\)) or nitrido ligand (\(\ce{N#}\)) are diamagnetic. The scheme below shows three possible molecular orbital energy diagrams.

1.6 Choose which orbital energy diagram explains the observed diamagnetism. Draw the corresponding electron configuration in the correct diagram.

Figure 5

\(\ce{((C4H9)4N)[^{99g}TcO4]}\) is a colorless powder. By the addition of conc. \(\ce{HCl}\) this common starting compound for \(\ce{^{99g}Tc}\) chemistry is converted into the green complex \(\ce{((C4H9)4N)[^{99g}TcOCl4]}\).

1.7 Write down both oxidation and reduction half-reactions using the formulas of ions or neutral molecules, and the complete redox reaction.

All \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\) radiotracers in clinics are prepared in “one pot” reactions, applying commercialized kits. Typically (\(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\) \(t_{1/2}=6.015\ \mathrm{h}\)), an eluate of a \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\) generator has an activity of 12.5 GBq (GBq = gigabecquerel = \(10^9\) decays per second).

1.8 Calculate how many moles of \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\) are present in such samples.

For standard imaging, around 200 MBq \(\ce{^{99m}Tc}\) are administered to the patient.

1.9 Assume that no activity is lost through excretion. Calculate how many hours the patient has to wait until the injected activity decreases to under 1 % of the starting activity.

Bioconjugation of radiometals is a chemical challenge. A recent example is the (3 + 2) cycloaddition of \(\ce{[^{99m}TcO3(tacn)]+}\) (A) (tacn = 1,4,7-triazacyclononane) with alkenes. In this context (3 + 2) refers to the number of atoms involved and not to the numbers of electrons. The following scheme shows an example of this reaction by labeling a protected carbohydrate.

Figure 6

1.10 Draw the structures of compound A and B. Further, state the oxidation state of the technetium in these compounds.

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 1.1: A is molybdenum-99, \(\ce{^{99}_{42}Mo}\), [99Mo]. B is a \(\beta^-\) particle, an electron.

  • 1.2: a) \(+I\); b) \(+V\); c) \(+V\); d) \(+I\).

  • 1.3: i: \(\boxed{+0.74\ \mathrm{V}}\), using the adjacent steps; ii: \(\boxed{+0.31\ \mathrm{V}}\). The technetium diagram contains an inconsistency: the overall \(+0.50\ \mathrm{V}\) arrow and the \(+0.27\ \mathrm{V}\) final step would instead give \(E^\circ_{\mathrm{i}}=+0.81\ \mathrm{V}\).

  • 1.4: The permanganate ion, \(\ce{[MnO4]^-}\), [O-][Mn](=O)(=O)=O, is the strongest oxidizing agent.

  • 1.5: No, according to the supplied potentials: \(E^\circ_{\mathrm{disproportionation}}=-1.12\ \mathrm{V}\).

  • 1.6: Diagram a. Put two opposite-spin electrons, \(\uparrow\downarrow\), in the lowest \(d_{xy}\) orbital; leave the other four orbitals empty.

  • 1.7: The balanced half-reactions and overall ionic reaction are: \[ \begin{aligned} &\text{Oxidation:} && \ce{2Cl- -> Cl2 + 2e-}\\ &\text{Reduction:} && \ce{[^{99g}TcO4]^- + 6H+ + 4Cl- + 2e- -> [^{99g}TcOCl4]^- + 3H2O}\\ &\text{Overall:} && \ce{[^{99g}TcO4]^- + 6H+ + 6Cl- -> [^{99g}TcOCl4]^- + Cl2 + 3H2O}. \end{aligned} \]

  • 1.8: \(\boxed{n=6.48\times10^{-10}\ \mathrm{mol}=0.648\ \mathrm{nmol}}\).

  • 1.9: \(\boxed{t>39.9628\ \mathrm{h}}\); approximately 40.0 hours.

  • 1.10:
    A: fac-Trioxo(1,4,7-triazacyclononane)technetium(VII) cation, \(\ce{[^{99m}TcO3(tacn)]+}\); Tc \(=+VII\).
    SMILES: O=[99Tc+]12(=O)(=O)<-[NH]3CC[NH]->1CC[NH]->2CC3

B: Oxo(tacn)[3-(R-oxy)propane-1,2-diolato]technetium(V) cation; Tc \(=+V\). It contains a five-membered Tc–O–C–C–O ring.
SMILES: O=[99Tc+]123(<-[NH]4CC[NH]->1CC[NH]->2CC4)OCC(CO[*])O3

Here [*] represents the protected sugar residue \(\mathrm{R}\); the newly formed carbon stereocenter is unspecified.

Solution

SMILES below use -> and <- for dative bonds and [*] for an unspecified organic substituent. A metal’s formal charge in SMILES is not necessarily its oxidation state. SMILES can encode mass number 99 but cannot distinguish the metastable and ground nuclear states; those are specified in the text. Formula-unit representations of solid oxides and metals do not describe their crystal lattices.

Common species used in the equations are water, O; hydrogen ion, [H+]; chloride ion, [Cl-]; chlorine, ClCl; and hydrogen chloride, Cl. Electrons and antineutrinos have no molecular SMILES.

1.1 — Mother nuclide and emitted particle

In \(\beta^-\) decay, a neutron becomes a proton. The mass number remains unchanged, while the atomic number increases by one.

Technetium has atomic number 43, so the parent must have atomic number 42 and mass number 99: molybdenum-99, [99Mo].

The full nuclear equation, including the electron antineutrino omitted from the question’s abbreviated scheme, is

\[ \ce{^{99}_{42}Mo -> ^{99m}_{43}Tc + ^{0}_{-1}e} +\bar{\nu}_e. \]

Thus B is the emitted electron, or \(\beta^-\) particle. The daughter is technetium-99m, whose isotope SMILES is [99Tc], with its metastable state specified separately.

1.2 — Oxidation states of the four probes

Let the technetium oxidation state be \(x\). The metal oxidation state plus the formal ligand charges must equal the complex charge.

Probe Ligand-charge accounting Result
a All six isocyanide ligands are neutral: \(x+6(0)=+1\). \(\boxed{x=+I}\)
b Nitrido contributes \(-3\), dithiocarbamato contributes \(-1\), and the aminobisphosphine ligand is neutral: \(x-3-1=+1\). \(\boxed{x=+V}\)
c Oxo contributes \(-2\), the two thiolates contribute \(-2\) together, and the deprotonated nitrogen contributes \(-1\). The complex is neutral: \(x-2-2-1=0\). \(\boxed{x=+V}\)
d The three carbonyl ligands and the nitrogen-donor ligand are neutral. The phosphonic acid groups are drawn protonated: \(x=+1\). \(\boxed{x=+I}\)

The ligand types used in this accounting have the following SMILES representations:

Ligand or fragment SMILES Charge
Isocyanide [*][N+]#[C-] \(0\)
Nitrido, represented by nitride [N-3] \(-3\)
Dithiocarbamate [*]N([*])C(=S)[S-] \(-1\)
Oxo, represented by oxide [O-2] \(-2\)
Thiolate [*][S-] \(-1\)
Amido, a deprotonated secondary amine [*][N-][*] \(-1\)
Carbon monoxide [C-]#[O+] \(0\)

In c, the left nitrogen has no hydrogen and is the amido donor. The right nitrogen is explicitly drawn as \(\ce{NH}\), so it is a neutral amine donor.

1.3 — Missing redox potentials

Reduction potentials cannot be added directly. Instead, use the additivity of Gibbs energies:

\[ \Delta G^\circ=-nFE^\circ. \]

Consequently, combining two consecutive reductions gives

\[ E^\circ_{\mathrm{overall}} =\frac{n_1E^\circ_1+n_2E^\circ_2}{n_1+n_2}. \]

The species involved are:

Species and name SMILES
\(\ce{[TcO4]^-}\), pertechnetate(VII) [O-][Tc](=O)(=O)=O
\(\ce{[TcO4]^2-}\), tetraoxotechnetate(VI) [O-][Tc](=O)(=O)[O-]
\(\ce{TcO2}\), technetium(IV) oxide O=[Tc]=O
\(\ce{Tc}\), technetium metal [Tc]
\(\ce{[ReO4]^-}\), perrhenate(VII) [O-][Re](=O)(=O)=O
\(\ce{ReO2}\), rhenium(IV) oxide O=[Re]=O
\(\ce{Re}\), rhenium metal [Re]

For i, the adjacent technetium reductions are \(+VII\rightarrow+VI\), involving one electron, and \(+VI\rightarrow+IV\), involving two electrons:

\[ E^\circ_{\mathrm{i}} =\frac{1(-0.57)+2(1.39)}{3} =\frac{2.21}{3} =0.7367\ \mathrm{V}. \]

Therefore,

\[ \boxed{E^\circ_{\mathrm{i}}=+0.74\ \mathrm{V}}. \]

For ii, the overall rhenium reduction \(+VII\rightarrow0\) involves seven electrons. Its \(+VII\rightarrow+IV\) segment involves three electrons, leaving four for \(+IV\rightarrow0\):

\[ 7(0.40)=3(0.52)+4E^\circ_{\mathrm{ii}}. \]

Hence,

\[ E^\circ_{\mathrm{ii}} =\frac{7(0.40)-3(0.52)}{4} =\boxed{+0.31\ \mathrm{V}}. \]

1.4 — Strongest oxidizing agent

An oxidizing agent accepts electrons. For comparable reductions, a more positive reduction potential indicates a stronger oxidizing agent.

For the \(+VII\rightarrow+IV\) reductions, the supplied or calculated potentials are

\[ \begin{aligned} E^\circ_{\mathrm{Mn}}&=+1.69\ \mathrm{V},\\ E^\circ_{\mathrm{Tc}}&\approx+0.74\ \mathrm{V},\\ E^\circ_{\mathrm{Re}}&=+0.52\ \mathrm{V}. \end{aligned} \]

Thus the strongest oxidizing agent is the permanganate ion:

\[ \boxed{\ce{[MnO4]^-}}. \]

1.5 — Disproportionation of technetium(IV) oxide

The reduction half-reaction is

\[ \ce{TcO2 + 4H+ + 4e- -> Tc + 2H2O}, \qquad E^\circ_{\mathrm{red}}=+0.27\ \mathrm{V}. \]

The oxidation half-reaction is the reverse of the supplied \(+VI\rightarrow+IV\) reduction:

\[ \ce{TcO2 + 2H2O -> TcO4^2- + 4H+ + 2e-}, \qquad E^\circ_{\mathrm{ox}}=-1.39\ \mathrm{V}. \]

Multiplying the oxidation half-reaction by two and adding gives

\[ \boxed{\ce{3TcO2 + 2H2O -> Tc + 2TcO4^2- + 4H+}}. \]

Its cell potential is

\[ E^\circ_{\mathrm{cell}} =0.27-1.39 =\boxed{-1.12\ \mathrm{V}}. \]

Since four electrons are transferred,

\[ \Delta G^\circ=-4FE^\circ_{\mathrm{cell}}>0. \]

Therefore, the proposed disproportionation is thermodynamically unfavorable under the conditions represented by the supplied potentials. Acidic conditions also oppose a reaction that produces hydrogen ions.

1.6 — Orbital diagram and diamagnetism

A \(d^2\) complex is diamagnetic only if its two electrons are paired.

In diagram a, \(d_{xy}\) is an isolated lowest-energy orbital. If its separation from the next orbitals exceeds the pairing energy, both electrons occupy it:

\[ \boxed{ (d_{xy})^2(d_{xz})^0(d_{yz})^0 (d_{x^2-y^2})^0(d_{z^2})^0 }. \]

To complete the drawing, select a, put \(\uparrow\downarrow\) on the lowest \(d_{xy}\) line, and leave every other line empty. The total spin is \(S=0\).

A terminal oxo or nitrido ligand along the \(z\)-axis strongly destabilizes orbitals involved in metal–ligand \(\sigma\) and \(\pi\) interactions, while \(d_{xy}\) can remain comparatively low.

In diagrams b and c, the lowest level contains degenerate orbitals. Hund’s rule would place the two electrons in separate orbitals with parallel spins, giving paramagnetism.

1.7 — Conversion of pertechnetate to the oxochlorido complex

The relevant anions are:

  • Pertechnetate(VII), \(\ce{[^{99g}TcO4]^-}\): [O-][99Tc](=O)(=O)=O.
  • Tetrachloridooxotechnetate(V), \(\ce{[^{99g}TcOCl4]^-}\): O=[99Tc-](Cl)(Cl)(Cl)Cl.

Their oxidation states follow from

\[ x-4(2)=-1 \quad\Rightarrow\quad x=+VII \]

and

\[ x-2-4=-1 \quad\Rightarrow\quad x=+V. \]

Technetium therefore gains two electrons. Chloride supplies those electrons by oxidation to chlorine.

The oxidation half-reaction is

\[ \boxed{\ce{2Cl- -> Cl2 + 2e-}}. \]

For the reduction, three oxygen atoms are removed as water, requiring six hydrogen ions; four chlorides become ligands:

\[ \boxed{ \ce{[^{99g}TcO4]^- + 6H+ + 4Cl- + 2e- -> [^{99g}TcOCl4]^- + 3H2O} }. \]

Adding and cancelling electrons gives

\[ \boxed{ \ce{[^{99g}TcO4]^- + 6H+ + 6Cl- -> [^{99g}TcOCl4]^- + Cl2 + 3H2O} }. \]

The tetrabutylammonium ion, CCCC[N+](CCCC)(CCCC)CCCC, is a spectator. Including it gives the complete salt equation:

\[ \boxed{ \ce{[(C4H9)4N][^{99g}TcO4] + 6HCl -> [(C4H9)4N][^{99g}TcOCl4] + Cl2 + 3H2O} }. \]

The corresponding salt SMILES are:

  • Tetrabutylammonium pertechnetate: CCCC[N+](CCCC)(CCCC)CCCC.[O-][99Tc](=O)(=O)=O
  • Tetrabutylammonium tetrachloridooxotechnetate(V): CCCC[N+](CCCC)(CCCC)CCCC.O=[99Tc-](Cl)(Cl)(Cl)Cl

1.8 — Amount of technetium-99m

Activity and the number of radioactive nuclei are related by

\[ A=\lambda N, \qquad \lambda=\frac{\ln 2}{t_{1/2}}. \]

Convert the half-life to seconds:

\[ t_{1/2} =6.015\times3600 =21654\ \mathrm{s}. \]

Thus

\[ \lambda =\frac{\ln2}{21654\ \mathrm{s}} =3.2010\times10^{-5}\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}. \]

For an activity of \(12.5\times10^9\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}\),

\[ N =\frac{12.5\times10^9}{3.2010\times10^{-5}} =3.9050\times10^{14}\ \text{nuclei}. \]

Using \(N_{\mathrm A}=6.02214076\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}\),

\[ n=\frac{N}{N_{\mathrm A}} =\frac{3.9050\times10^{14}} {6.02214076\times10^{23}} =6.4844\times10^{-10}\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

To three significant figures,

\[ \boxed{n=6.48\times10^{-10}\ \mathrm{mol}=0.648\ \mathrm{nmol}}. \]

1.9 — Time to fall below 1%

Radioactive decay gives

\[ \frac{A(t)}{A_0} =e^{-\lambda t} =2^{-t/t_{1/2}}. \]

The required condition is

\[ 2^{-t/t_{1/2}}<0.01. \]

Therefore,

\[ t> t_{1/2}\frac{\ln100}{\ln2} =(6.015\ \mathrm{h})(6.643856) =39.9628\ \mathrm{h}. \]

Hence the patient must wait approximately

\[ \boxed{40.0\ \mathrm{h}}. \]

At \(39.9628\ \mathrm{h}\), the activity reaches 1%; a slightly longer time is required to be strictly below it. For the stated initial activity, the target is below \(2.00\ \mathrm{MBq}\).

1.10 — Structures and oxidation states of A and B

The neutral ligand 1,4,7-triazacyclononane, tacn, has SMILES N1CCNCCNCC1. It coordinates through its three nitrogen atoms.

The alkene is an allyl ether of the protected carbohydrate, \(\ce{CH2=CH-CH2-O-R}\), with generic SMILES C=CCO[*].

Compound A

Its formation is

\[ \ce{[^{99m}TcO4]^- + tacn + 2H+ -> [^{99m}TcO3(tacn)]+ + H2O}. \]

Draw a technetium center with three terminal \(\ce{Tc=O}\) groups and three coordinate bonds to the nitrogen atoms of one tacn ligand. The geometry is approximately octahedral: tacn occupies one triangular face, and the three oxo ligands occupy the opposite face.

This is fac-trioxo(tacn)technetium(VII) cation:

O=[99Tc+]12(=O)(=O)<-[NH]3CC[NH]->1CC[NH]->2CC3

Since tacn is neutral and each oxo ligand contributes \(-2\),

\[ x+3(-2)=+1 \quad\Rightarrow\quad \boxed{x=+VII}. \]

Compound B

Two oxo ligands of A react with the two alkene carbons. The three-atom unit is O–Tc–O; the two-atom unit is the alkene’s C–C pair.

The product contains a five-membered ring with the sequence

\[ \ce{Tc-O-CH2-CH(CH2OR)-O}, \]

where the final oxygen bonds back to the same technetium atom. Thus:

  • The alkene’s C=C bond becomes a C–C single bond.
  • Each alkene carbon forms a new C–O bond.
  • Two terminal oxo groups become a chelating diolato ligand.
  • The third terminal oxo group and all three tacn donor bonds remain.

The overall cycloaddition is

\[ \ce{[^{99m}TcO3(tacn)]+ + CH2=CH-CH2-O-R -> [^{99m}TcO(tacn)(OCH2CH(CH2OR)O)]+}. \]

The product is oxo(tacn)[3-(R-oxy)propane-1,2-diolato]technetium(V) cation:

O=[99Tc+]123(<-[NH]4CC[NH]->1CC[NH]->2CC4)OCC(CO[*])O3

Draw tacn facially coordinated, with the remaining three coordination positions occupied by the terminal oxo ligand and the two oxygen donors of the diolato chelate.

The remaining oxo ligand has charge \(-2\), and the diolato ligand has charge \(-2\):

\[ x-2-2=+1 \quad\Rightarrow\quad \boxed{x=+V}. \]

Thus technetium is reduced from \(+VII\) to \(+V\), while the alkene undergoes oxidative addition of the two oxygen atoms.

The cycloaddition gives syn attachment of the two oxygens to the alkene. Only the substituted alkene carbon becomes a new carbon stereocenter. The scheme does not specify which absolute configuration is obtained, so that center is intentionally left unassigned in the SMILES.

The solution was checked against the official solution. Where this solution differs from the official solution, the official solution contains an error or a misprint.