International Chemistry Olympiad

IChO 2019

Paris, France · 9 theory problems with complete solutions

  1. Problem 1: Infinite well and butadiene

    The buta-1,3-diene molecule is often written \(\ce{CH2=CH-CH=CH2}\), with alternating single and double bonds. Nevertheless, its chemical reactivity is not consistent with this description and the \(\pi\) electrons are better described by a distribution along the three bonds:

    Figure 1

    This system can be modeled as a 1D box (i.e. infinite well) where the electrons are free. The energy of an electron in an infinite well of length \(L\) is:

    \[ E_n=\frac{n^2h^2}{8m_eL^2} \]

    where \(n\) is a non-zero positive integer.

    1.1 Two different models are studied. Sketch at least the three lowest-energy levels \(E_n\) for each model in the respective diagrams, showing how the relative energy levels differ within and between models.

    1.2 Place the \(\pi\) electrons for model 1 in the previous diagrams and express the total energy of the \(\pi\) system in model 1, as a function of \(h\), \(m_e\) and \(d\).

    1.3 Place the \(\pi\) electrons for model 2 in the previous diagrams and express the total energy of the \(\pi\) system in model 2, as a function of \(h\), \(m_e\) and \(d\).

    The conjugation energy is the total energy of the actual \(\pi\) system, minus the sum of the energies of ethylene molecules involving the same number of electrons.

    1.4 Express the conjugation energy \(\Delta E_{\mathrm c}\) of butadiene, as a function of \(h\), \(m_e\) and \(d\).

    Models 1 and 2 are too simplistic. A newä=ú§model will be detailed in the following.

    1.5 Draw three other resonance structures of butadiene using Lewis notation.

    To take into account the size of carbon atoms, model 2 is now modified into model 3, as follows:

    • the new length of the well is \(L\) and is located between the abscissa 0 and \(L\);
    • the carbon atoms are located at the abscissas \(L/8\); \(3L/8\); \(5L/8\) and \(7L/8\).

    For each level \(n\), the \(\pi\) wavefunction is:

    \[ \Psi_n(x)=\sqrt{\frac{2}{L}}\sin\left(\frac{n\pi x}{L}\right) \]

    and the \(\pi\) electron density for a system with \(N\) \(\pi\)-electrons is:

    \[ \rho(x)=2\sum_{i=1}^{N/2}|\Psi_i(x)|^2 \]

    The four \(\pi\) wavefunctions, which correspond to the molecular orbitals of the \(\pi\) system, are depicted below (arbitrary order).

    Figure 2

    1.6 Sort the energies of the four \(\pi\) wavefunctions (\(E_A\), \(E_B\), \(E_C\) and \(E_D\)).

    1.7 Give the labels (A, B, C or D) of the orbitals that are filled with electrons in butadiene.

    1.8 Within model 3, give the values of the \(\pi\) wavefunctions \(\psi_n\) for occupied levels at positions 0, \(L/4\) and \(L/2\), for \(n=1\) and \(n=2\), as a function of \(L\).

    1.9 Within model 3, give the value of the \(\pi\) electron density at positions 0, \(L/4\) and \(L/2\).

    1.10 Draw the \(\pi\) electron density between 0 and \(L\).

    1.11 Sort the following CC bonds (B1, B2, …, B5) by increasing length, using the symbols = or <:

    B1: C1–C2 in the butadiene molecule

    B2: C2–C3 in the butadiene molecule

    B3: C3–C4 in the butadiene molecule

    B4: C–C in the ethane molecule

    B5: C–C in the ethene molecule

    Official English text of the problem.

  2. Problem 2: Hydrogen production by water-splitting

    Data:

    Compound \(\ce{H2(g)}\) \(\ce{H2O(l)}\) \(\ce{H2O(g)}\) \(\ce{O2(g)}\)
    \(\Delta_\mathrm{f}H^\circ\) (\(\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)) 0 −285.8 −241.8 0
    \(S_\mathrm{m}^\circ\) (\(\mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}}\)) 130.6 69.9 188.7 205.2

    Molecular hydrogen (\(\ce{H2}\)) can be used as an alternative to carbon dioxide-emitting fuels. Hence, lowering the cost and the environmental impact of its production is a major challenge. In this field, water-splitting is a promising candidate technology.

    2.1 Write down the balanced equation of liquid water splitting reaction using a stoichiometric coefficient of 1 for water.

    2.2 Using only the provided thermodynamic data, this justify numerically whether reaction is thermodynamically favorable at 298 K.

    Water splitting can be performed electrochemically using two electrodes in an acidic water bath, connected by a generator (Fig. 1). Gas bubbles are formed at both electrodes.

    Figure 1

    Fig. 1. Water-splitting electrochemical cell.

    2.3 Write down the balanced net electrochemical half reactions occurring at each electrode.

    2.4 Using only the provided thermodynamic data (or question 2), derive the condition on the applied voltage \(\Delta E_\mathrm{applied}\) between electrodes, compared to value \(\Delta E_\mathrm{th}\) (to determine), for the process to be thermodynamically favorable at 298 K, when all reactants and products are in their standard state. Tick the right condition and give the numerical value with 3 decimal places.

    Experimentally, a higher voltage is needed to observe water splitting. For a given \(\ce{Pt}\) cathode, the minimum voltage necessary to observe water splitting, \(\Delta E_\mathrm{min}\), depends on the nature of the anode, as displayed in the table below:

    Anode \(\Delta E_\mathrm{min}\) (V)
    \(\ce{IrO_x}\) 1.6
    \(\ce{NiO_x}\) 1.7
    \(\ce{CoO_x}\) 1.7
    \(\ce{Fe2O3}\) 1.9

    The difference between \(\Delta E_\mathrm{min}\) and \(\Delta E_\mathrm{th}\) is responsible for losses in the device.

    2.5 Give the expression of the device power efficiency \(\eta_\mathrm{elec}\) (fraction of the power used for water splitting) as a function of \(\Delta E_\mathrm{th}\) and \(\Delta E_\mathrm{min}\). Assuming an identical current value \(I\), calculate the water electrolysis power efficiency when a \(\ce{Pt}\) cathode and a \(\ce{Fe2O3}\) anode are used. Give the most efficient anode.

    An alternative to water electrolysis is direct photocatalytic water-splitting. It uses a semiconductor that can be activated by absorbing light.

    Figure 2

    Fig. 2: Activation condition and equivalent electrode potentials of different semiconductors. Dashed lines correspond to water oxidation and reduction potentials. SHE = Standard Hydrogen Electrode

    Figure 3

    Fig. 3 – Left axis: Spectral distribution of the solar photon flux \(\Phi\). The photon flux is the number of photons per unit area per unit time arriving on the semiconductor. Right axis and dashed line: cumulative photon flux (i.e. fraction of the photon flux with smaller wavelength).

    2.6 Estimate the fraction of the solar photon flux that can activate the following semiconductors: \(\ce{TiO2}\), \(\ce{CdS}\), \(\ce{Si}\). State explicitly the equations and units used for the computation.

    The activation of the semi-conductor results in a modification of the surface potentials, so that it can be seen as two electrodes of different potentials.

    2.7 Using the data in Fig 2, choose the semiconductor(s) in the following list that, once activated, can play both roles of anode and cathode for water-splitting reaction.

    2.8 Give the semiconductor that, used as both cathode and anode, is expected to be the most efficient for water splitting upon a given solar shining.

    The evolution of \(\ce{H2}\) and \(\ce{O2}\) when a semiconductor is irradiated by simulated solar light at \(T=25\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\) at \(p_\mathrm{atm}\) was recently studied. Using an incident power light of \(P=1.0\,\mathrm{kW\,m^{-2}}\) and a photoelectrode with a \(S=16\,\mathrm{mm^2}\) surface, the production of \(V=0.37\,\mathrm{cm^3}\) of \(\ce{H2(g)}\) was measured after \(\Delta t=1\) hour of reaction.

    2.9 Calculate the power efficiency \(\eta_\mathrm{direct}\) of the conversion.

    Two modes of converting solar energy to hydrogen can thus be compared: direct photocatalysis, and indirect photo-electrolysis combining a photovoltaic panel with an electrolyzer. The efficiency of photovoltaic panels on the market is around \(\eta_\mathrm{panels}=20\%\).

    2.10 Compare the power efficiencies of the two modes, \(\eta_\mathrm{direct}\) and \(\eta_\mathrm{indirect}\), using \(\ce{Fe2O3}\) and \(\ce{Pt}\) electrodes for the electrolysis.

    Official English text of the problem.

  3. Problem 3: About silver chloride

    Data at 298 K:

    \[ pK_{\mathrm{s}1}(\ce{AgCl})=9.7 \ ;\qquad pK_{\mathrm{s}2}(\ce{Ag2CrO4})=12 \]

    Formation constant of the complex \(\ce{[Ag(NH3)_{n}]+}\): \(\beta_n=10^{7.2}\)

    Potentials against the standard hydrogen electrode:

    Standard potential of \(\ce{Ag+}/\ce{Ag(s)}\): \(E^\circ(\ce{Ag+}/\ce{Ag(s)})=0.80\ \mathrm{V}\)

    Apparent potential of \(\ce{O2(aq)}/\ce{HO-(aq)}\) (in seawater): \(E'(\ce{O2(aq)}/\ce{HO-(aq)})=0.75\ \mathrm{V}\)

    Part A: Quotes from a chemistry lesson by Louis Joseph Gay-Lussac

    The following quotes from a chemistry lesson by Louis Joseph Gay-Lussac (French chemist and physicist, 1778–1850) deal with some properties of silver chloride.

    Quote A: “I will now talk about silver chloride, a milk-white solid. It is easily obtained by pouring hydrochloric acid into an aqueous solution of silver nitrate.”

    Quote B: “This salt has no taste since it is insoluble.”

    Quote C: “This compound is completely insoluble in alcohol and even in acids, except in concentrated hydrochloric acid which dissolves it readily.”

    Quote D: “On the other hand, silver chloride is highly soluble in aqueous solution of ammonia.”

    Quote E: “Then, we can make silver chloride appear again by adding an acid which reacts with ammonia.”

    Quote F: “If you take a bowl made of silver to evaporate salty seawater, you will get impure sodium chloride, mixed with a milk-white solid.”

    3.1 Quote A: Write the balanced chemical equation of \(\ce{AgCl(s)}\) synthesis.

    3.2 Quote B: Calculate the solubility \(s\) of \(\ce{AgCl(s)}\) in water at 298 K in \(\mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}\).

    3.3 Quote C: In a highly concentrated solution of chloride ions, a well-defined complex of stoichiometry 1:2 is formed. On the following qualitative axis (with pCl increasing from left to right), place in each domain the silver-containing species that is predominant (or exists, for solids). pCl values at frontiers are not expected.

    Quote D: When ammonia is added to silver chloride, a well-defined complex of stoichiometry \(n\) is formed.

    3.4 Write the balanced equation corresponding to the synthesis of the complex \(\ce{[Ag(NH3)_{n}]+}\) from silver chloride and calculate the corresponding equilibrium constant.

    3.5 Ammonia is added to 0.1 mol of silver chloride in \(1\ \mathrm{dm^3}\) of water until the last grain of solid disappears. At this moment, \([\ce{NH3}]=1.78\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}\). Determine the stoichiometry of the complex neglecting dilution effects.

    3.6 Write the balanced chemical equation corresponding to quote E.

    3.7 Assuming that seawater is slightly basic and rich in dioxygen, and that silver metal can reduce dioxygen in such conditions, write a balanced chemical equation corresponding to the formation of the solid mentioned in quote F. A stoichiometric coefficient of 1 will be chosen for dioxygen. Calculate its equilibrium constant at 298 K.

    Part B: The Mohr method

    The Mohr method is based on the colorimetric titration of \(\ce{Cl-}\) by \(\ce{Ag+}\) in the presence of potassium chromate (\(\ce{2K+}\), \(\ce{CrO4^2-}\)). Three drops (~ \(0.5\ \mathrm{cm^3}\)) of a \(\ce{K2CrO4}\) solution at about \(c=7.76\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}\) are added to \(V_0=20.00\ \mathrm{cm^3}\) of a sodium chloride solution of unknown concentration \(c_{\mathrm{Cl}}\). This solution is then titrated by silver nitrate (\(\ce{Ag+}\), \(\ce{NO3-}\)) at \(c=0.050\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}\), which immediately leads to the formation of solid A. A red precipitate (solid B) appears at \(V_{\mathrm{Ag}}=4.30\ \mathrm{cm^3}\).

    3.8 Write the balanced equations of the two reactions occurring during the experiment. Calculate the corresponding equilibrium constants.

    3.9 Identify the solids.

    3.10 Calculate the unknown concentration \(c(\ce{Cl-})\) of chloride ions in the sodium chloride solution.

    3.11 Calculate the minimal volume \(V_{\mathrm{Ag}}(\min)\) for which \(\ce{AgCl(s)}\) precipitates.

    3.12 Calculate the residual concentration \([\ce{Cl-}]_{\mathrm{res}}\) of chloride ions when silver chromate begins to precipitate. Justify why \(\ce{CrO4^2-}\) is a good titration endpoint indicator by comparing two values.

    Official English text of the problem.

  4. Problem 4: From gunpowder to the discovery of iodine

    In the 19th century, the French entrepreneur B. Courtois specialized in the production of nitrate A (\(\ce{M_A(NO3)_m}\)), used for gunpowder. Initially imported from Asia, A was later produced from nitrate B (\(\ce{M_B(NO3)_n}\)) using exchange reaction with compound C, obtained from algae.

    4.1 Find the formulas of nitrates A and B knowing that they are anhydrous salts of alkaline or alkaline-earth metal (\(\ce{M_A}\) and \(\ce{M_B}\)). One of the nitrates contains no more than 1 w% of non-metallic impurities while the other contains \(9 \pm 3\) w% of impurities. The content of metals \(\ce{M_A}\) and \(\ce{M_B}\) in the samples is 38.4 w% and 22.4 w%, respectively. Support your answer with calculations.

    To obtain A, 262.2 g of solid compound C were added to the solution containing 442.8 g of B. B is known to be in excess. As a result, 190.0 g of white precipitate D were formed and removed by filtration. The filtrate was evaporated, and the obtained solid mixture E was heated until the mass of the sample (containing only nitrites, \(\ce{NO2-}\)) was constant. The only gaseous product was dioxygen: 60.48 dm³ at 0 °C and 1 atm (dioxygen can be considered as an ideal gas).

    4.2 Calculate the composition (in w%) of mixture E considering that it contained only compounds A and B and no other impurities, and that C was taken in pure anhydrous state.

    4.3 Determine the formulas of compounds C and D and write the balanced reaction equation between B and C.

    In 1811, when working with algae ashes, Courtois observed that copper vessels were worn out faster than usual. While he was studying this phenomenon, his cat entered the laboratory and spilled the solution of concentrated sulfuric acid on the dry algae ashes: violet vapors instantly came out of the vessel (1, sulfuric acid is the oxidizing agent): iodine (\(\ce{I2}\)) had just been discovered! Iodine was the cause of the copper corrosion (2). However, because of the medicinal applications of iodine, Courtois opened a new manufacture to produce it by reaction of algae with chlorine (3). Nowadays, the iodine is prepared from the set of reactants (\(\ce{NO3-}\), \(\ce{I-}\), \(\ce{H+}\)) (4) or (\(\ce{IO3-}\), \(\ce{I-}\), \(\ce{H+}\)) (5).

    4.4 Write balanced equations for reactions 1 – 5.

    The solubility of iodine is very low in water but significantly increases when iodide ions are added. Together they form ions such as triiodide, \(\ce{I3-}\):

    \[ \ce{I-(aq) + I2(aq)} = \ce{I3-(aq)} \qquad (6) \]

    Equilibrium (6) can be studied through the extraction of \(\ce{I2}\) with dichloromethane. Indeed, \(\ce{I-}\) and \(\ce{I3-}\) do not dissolve in organic solvents but \(\ce{I2}\) does and, when extracted, it is 15 times more concentrated in dichloromethane than in water.

    The following experiment was performed. To prepare the initial solution, a few crystals of solid iodine were dissolved in 50.0 cm³ of an aqueous solution of potassium iodide (0.1112 g). Then, 50.0 cm³ of dichloromethane were added, and the mixture was vigorously shaken until equilibration. After phase separation, each phase was titrated by 16.20 cm³ (organic phase) and by 8.00 cm³ (aqueous phase) of the standard aqueous solution of sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate (14.9080 g in 1.000 dm³ of solution) in the presence of starch. The process is schematically represented below:

    Figure 1

    4.5 Find the correspondence between the stages on the scheme (1–9) and the schematic pictures representing them (a–i).

    Stages Picture
    1
    2
    3
    4
    5
    6
    7
    8
    9

    4.6 Write balanced equations for the two possible chemical reactions in the aqueous phase during the titration involving iodine species and sodium thiosulphate.

    4.7 Calculate the mass of iodine used to prepare the initial solution.

    4.8 Calculate the equilibrium constant \(K^\circ\) for equilibrium of reaction (6).

    Official English text of the problem.

  5. Problem 5: Azobenzene–β-cyclodextrin complexes for the formation of nanomachines

    Nanomachines are molecular assemblies that enable the transformation of an energy source into a nano-movement for applications such as drug delivery. Numerous nanomachines make use of the isomerization of azo compounds (\(\ce{R-N=N-R'}\)) upon irradiation.

    5.1 Draw the stereoisomers of azobenzene (\(\ce{H5C6-N=N-C6H5}\)) and draw a line between the two carbon atoms that are the furthest apart. Compare these two distances (\(d_{\mathrm{trans}}\) and \(d_{\mathrm{cis}}\)).

    Figure 1

    Fig. 1. Possible reactants for the synthesis of M.

    5.2 M can be synthesized in two steps from simple reactants (Fig 1). Choose among the suggested reactants (N to Q) the ones that can provide M with very high regioselectivity. Sodium nitrite (\(\ce{NaNO2}\)) in cold aqueous hydrochloric acid is used as reagent for the first step of the synthesis.

    Determination of the association constant \(K_t\)

    β-cyclodextrin (C, Fig. 2) is a cyclic heptamer of glucose, which can form inclusion complexes with azo compounds. In tasks 3 to 6, we will determine by spectroscopy the association constant \(K_t\), corresponding to the formation of the inclusion complex \(\mathbf{CM}_{\mathrm{trans}}\) as depicted in Fig. 2.

    Figure 2

    Fig. 2 – Formation of the \(\mathbf{CM}_{\mathrm{trans}}\) inclusion complex.

    Several solutions are prepared by mixing C and \(\mathbf{M}_{\mathrm{trans}}\) in different proportions to reach initial concentrations \([\mathbf C]_0\) and \([\mathbf M_{\mathrm{trans}}]_0\). While \([\mathbf M_{\mathrm{trans}}]_0\) is identical for all solutions, \([\mathbf C]_0\) varies. We follow, at a fixed wavelength, the evolution of the difference in absorbance \(\Delta A\) between the absorbance of each solution and the pure \(\mathbf M_{\mathrm{trans}}\) solution. We note the molar absorption coefficients of \(\mathbf{CM}_{\mathrm{trans}}\) and \(\mathbf M_{\mathrm{trans}}\), \(\varepsilon_{\mathrm{CM}_{\mathrm{trans}}}\) and \(\varepsilon_{\mathrm M_{\mathrm{trans}}}\), respectively. \(L\) is the path length of the beam through the sample. The absorbance of C (\(\varepsilon_{\mathrm C}\)) is negligible.

    5.3 Demonstrate that \(\Delta A=\alpha[\mathbf{CM}_{\mathrm{trans}}]\) and express \(\alpha\) in terms of known constant(s).

    5.4 Demonstrate that in case when C is in large excess with respect to \(\mathbf M_{\mathrm{trans}}\) (i.e. \([\mathbf C]_0\gg[\mathbf M_{\mathrm{trans}}]_0\)), the concentration of C may be considered as constant, \([\mathbf C]\simeq[\mathbf C]_0\).

    5.5 Demonstrate that in case when C is in a large excess with respect to \(\mathbf M_{\mathrm{trans}}\), (i.e. \([\mathbf C]_0\gg[\mathbf M_{\mathrm{trans}}]_0\)),

    \[ \Delta A=\alpha\frac{\beta[\mathbf C]_0}{1+K_t[\mathbf C]_0} \]

    and express \(\beta\) in terms of constant(s) and initial concentration(s).

    5.6 Determine \(K_t\) using the following experimental curve (Fig. 3).

    Figure 3

    Fig. 3 – Evolution of \(1/\Delta A\) as a function of \(1/[\mathbf C]_0\).

    Determination of the association constant \(K_c\)

    In tasks 7 to 9, we will determine by kinetic studies the association constant \(K_c\), corresponding to the formation of the inclusion complex with \(\mathbf M_{\mathrm{cis}}\), \(\mathbf{CM}_{\mathrm{cis}}\). A sample containing only \(\mathbf M_{\mathrm{trans}}\) is irradiated, thus producing a known amount of \(\mathbf M_{\mathrm{cis}}\), \([\mathbf M_{\mathrm{cis}}]_0\). \(\mathbf M_{\mathrm{cis}}\) (free or within the inclusion complex) then thermally isomerizes into \(\mathbf M_{\mathrm{trans}}\). In the absence of C, the isomerization follows a first order kinetics with a rate constant \(k_1\). All complexation equilibria are faster than the isomerization processes. The kinetic scheme corresponding to this experiment is provided in Fig. 4.

    Figure 4

    Fig. 4 – Kinetic scheme for the isomerization of \(\mathbf M_{\mathrm{cis}}\) in the presence of C.

    The rate of disappearance \(r\) for the total amount of \(\mathbf M_{\mathrm{cis}}\) (free and complexed) is defined as

    \[ r=k_1[\mathbf M_{\mathrm{cis}}]+k_2[\mathbf{CM}_{\mathrm{cis}}]. \]

    Experimentally, \(r\) follows an apparent first order kinetic law with an apparent rate constant \(k_{\mathrm{obs}}\):

    \[ r=k_{\mathrm{obs}}\bigl([\mathbf M_{\mathrm{cis}}]+[\mathbf{CM}_{\mathrm{cis}}]\bigr). \]

    5.7 Demonstrate that

    \[ k_{\mathrm{obs}}= \frac{\gamma+\delta k_2[\mathbf C]}{1+K_c[\mathbf C]} \]

    and express \(\gamma\) and \(\delta\) in terms of known constant(s).

    5.8 Choose in which condition(s) the half-life \(t_{1/2}\) corresponding to \(k_{\mathrm{obs}}\) can be expressed as \(t_{1/2}=\ln(2/\gamma)(1+K_c[\mathbf C]_0)\) given that \([\mathbf C]_0\gg[\mathbf M_{\mathrm{cis}}]_0\). Mathematically justify your answer.

    5.9 Assuming the condition(s) in task 8 satisfied, determine \(K_c\) by a linear regression using the data below. You may use a calculator or plot a graph.

    \([\mathbf C]_0\) (\(\mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}\)) \(t_{1/2}\) (s) \([\mathbf C]_0\) (\(\mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}\)) \(t_{1/2}\) (s)
    0 3.0 \(3.0\cdot10^{-3}\) 5.9
    \(1.0\cdot10^{-4}\) 3.2 \(5.0\cdot10^{-3}\) 7.7
    \(5.0\cdot10^{-4}\) 3.6 \(7.5\cdot10^{-3}\) 9.9
    \(1.0\cdot10^{-3}\) 4.1 \(1.0\cdot10^{-2}\) 12.6

    Formation of nanomachines

    Figure 5

    Fig. 5 – Cleavage of an azobenzene–cyclodextrin inclusion complex induced by a light-triggered isomerization, which allows delivery of a dye (grey circles).

    Another azobenzene compound (for which \(K_c\ll K_t\)), initially in the trans form, is covalently grafted on silica (Fig. 5). The silica pores are filled with a dye (rhodamine B, grey circles in Fig. 5). Upon addition of C, an inclusion complex is formed, which blocks the pores and prevents the release of the dye.

    5.10 Choose the most appropriate condition (one choice only) so that the pores are initially blocked in the presence of C, and the dye can be released upon irradiation.

    This azobenzene-silica powder loaded with a dye is placed in the corner of a cuvette (Fig. 6) so that the powder cannot move into solution. The powder is irradiated at a wavelength \(\lambda_1\) to trigger the release of the dye from the pores (Fig. 5). To monitor this release by absorbance spectroscopy we measure the absorbance of the solution at wavelength \(\lambda_2\).

    Figure 6

    Fig. 6 – Left: experimental setup used to monitor the release of the dye; right: absorption spectra of trans-azobenzene (full line), cis-azobenzene (dotted line) and rhodamine B (dashed line).

    5.11 Determine \(\lambda_1\).

    5.12 Determine \(\lambda_2\).

    Official English text of the problem.

  6. Problem 6: Characterization of a block-copolymer

    Block-copolymers, obtained by linking different polymers (blocks), have unique properties, such as the ability to self-assemble. In this problem, the synthesis and characterization of such macromolecules are studied.

    Study of the first block

    Figure 1

    In this first part, we will study the water soluble homopolymer 1 (α-methoxy-ω-aminopolyethyleneglycol). The \({}^{1}\ce{H}\) NMR spectrum of 1 (DMSO-\(d_6\), 60 °C, 500 MHz) includes the following signals:

    Index δ (ppm) Peak Area
    a 2.7* 0.6
    b 3.3 0.9
    c 3.4 0.6
    d \(\sim 3.5\) 133.7

    Table 1, *in the presence of \(\ce{D2O}\), the signal at 2.7 ppm disappears.

    6.1 Match the \({}^{1}\ce{H}\) NMR signals (a, b, c, d) from Table 1 with each of the corresponding protons.

    Figure 2

    6.2 Express the average degree of polymerization \(n\) as a function of the area \(A_{\ce{OC2H4}}\) of the NMR peak of the repeating unit and the area \(A_{\ce{OCH3}}\) of the NMR peak of the methyl end group. Calculate \(n\).

    Study of a diblock-copolymer

    The synthesis of the second block of the copolymer is performed through the reaction of 1 with 2 (ε- (benzyloxycarbonyl)-lysine N-carboxyanhydride).

    This yields the block-copolymer 3.

    Figure 3

    6.3 Draw the reaction intermediate that is formed in the first step of the addition of 1 to 2. The second step of the mechanism leads to the formation of a gas molecule, G. Draw its structure.

    Figure 4

    6.4 Infrared (IR) measurements are performed to characterize the compounds. Match the three IR spectra with compounds 1, 2 and 3.

    Figure 5
    Figure 6
    Figure 7

    6.5 The \({}^{1}\ce{H}\) NMR spectrum of copolymer 3 (in DMSO-\(d_6\), at 60 °C, 500 MHz) is reported in Fig. 1. Using some or all of the NMR signals, the areas of which are reported in Table 2, calculate its number average molar mass \(M_n\), considering \(n\) from question 2. For your calculations, draw a circle around the group(s) of atoms you used and give their corresponding symbol(s) (α, β…).

    Table 2

    Peak Area
    α 22.4
    β 119
    γ 23.8
    δ 47.6
    ε 622
    Figure 8

    Fig. 1 – signals marked with * correspond to the solvent and water.

    This reaction of 1 with 2 yielded the copolymers 3a after 20 h, 3b after 25 h and 3c after 30 h of reaction at 40 °C. Results of size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) experiments are presented in Fig. 2.

    Figure 9

    Fig. 2 – SEC chromatograms of 3a, 3b and 3c as a function of the elution volume, \(V_e\).

    6.6 Match the signals in Fig. 2 with the copolymers 3a, 3b and 3c.

    3a: ☐ X  ☐ Y  ☐ Z
    3b: ☐ X  ☐ Y  ☐ Z
    3c: ☐ X  ☐ Y  ☐ Z

    In order to calibrate the chromatogram, a mixture of standard polymers of known masses (3, 30, 130, 700 and 7000 kg mol\(^{-1}\)) has been studied (Fig. 3).

    The log value of the molar mass is a linear function of the elution volume, \(V_e\).

    Figure 10

    Fig. 3 – SEC chromatogram of the mixture of standards.

    6.7 Based on the SEC curves in Fig. 2 and 3, determine \(V_e\) of the polymer that corresponds to curve X and use it to estimate the degree of polymerization \(m\) of its second block. Detail your calculation; you may use a calculator or plot a graph.

    Triblock copolymer synthesis

    For biological applications, involving the formation of micelles, a triblock copolymer 9 can be synthesized through the introduction of a middle block, B, using monomer 5.

    Figure 11

    6.8 Draw the structures of 5, 7 and 8.

    6.9 Amphiphilic block copolymers, such as 9: A-B-C, can be used for medical applications, as they self-assemble into micelles in water (pH = 7), which can be used as drug carriers. Assign each block of the copolymer to a property. Draw a scheme of the micelle with only 4 polymer chains.

    Official English text of the problem.

  7. Problem 7: Ring motion in a [2]catenane

    In 2016, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to J.-P. Sauvage, Sir J. F. Stoddart and B. L. Feringa “for the design and synthesis of molecular machines”. An example of these is [2]catenane, a molecule consisting of two interlocked rings. In this system, one macrocycle contains a single phenanthroline (bidentate) ligand and the second contains two ligands: a phenanthroline and a terpyridine (tridentate) ligand. A copper ion is coordinated by one ligand from each macrocycle. Depending on the oxidation state of the copper (+I or +II), two configurations are obtained (Fig. 1).

    Figure 1

    Fig. 1 – Multi-stability of a ring in a [2]catenane.

    The synthesis of the macrocycle is the following:

    Figure 2

    7.1 Draw the structure of B.

    7.2 Draw the structures of E, F and G.

    7.3 Out of the following reaction conditions, choose which one(s) can produce E from D.

    • ☐ \(\ce{H+, H2O}\)
    • ☐ \(\ce{OH-, H2O}\)
    • ☐ \(\ce{NaBH4, CH3OH}\)
    • ☐ \(\ce{H2}\), Pd/C, THF

    Tick the relevant box.

    7.4 In the synthetic strategy, MsCl is used to obtain:

    • ☐ a leaving group
    • ☐ a protecting group
    • ☐ a deactivated group
    • ☐ a directing group

    Tick the relevant box.

    7.5 G is obtained by the reaction between F and LiBr in acetone. This reaction is:

    • ☐ electrophilic aromatic substitution,
    • ☐ nucleophilic aromatic substitution,
    • ☐ \(\mathrm{S_N1}\)
    • ☐ \(\mathrm{S_N2}\)

    Tick the relevant boxes.

    7.6 Draw the transition state of the rate-determining step of the reaction F → G, showing the 3D geometry. Depict only one reaction center. The main carbon chain can be represented as an R group.

    The synthesis of [2]catenane L uses the template effect of a copper complex:

    Figure 3
    Figure 4

    7.7 Write the full electronic configuration of Cu(0) in its ground state. Give the oxidation state of Cu in complex J and write the electronic configuration of Cu in the free ion corresponding to J.

    7.8 Select the geometry of the copper ion in L. Assuming an ideal geometry of the ligands around the copper center, draw the electronic levels of the d-orbitals in accord with the crystal field theory. Fill the orbital diagram. Give the maximum value of the spin (\(S\)) for this complex. The geometry of the Cu in L is:

    • ☐ octahedral,
    • ☐ tetrahedral,
    • ☐ square planar,
    • ☐ trigonal bipyramidal.

    7.9 Out of the following compounds, choose the one(s) that can remove the copper ion in L to obtain the free [2]catenane (tick relevant boxes):

    • ☐ \(\ce{CH3CN}\)
    • ☐ \(\ce{NH4PF6}\)
    • ☐ \(\ce{KCN}\)
    • ☐ tren

    In [2]catenane L, the copper ion can exist in two oxidation states (+I) or (+II), and each of them exhibits a different coordination sphere (tetra- or penta-coordinated, respectively).

    Figure 5
    Figure 6

    Fig. 2 – [2] catenate L states

    The stability of Cu(I) complexes can be inferred by comparing their electronic structures to that of a noble gas.

    7.10 Fill in the blanks with a number or a tick:

    • The \(\ce{Cu^{I}N4}\) complex has ☐ (number) electrons in the coordination sphere of the metal.
    • The \(\ce{Cu^{I}N5}\) complex has ☐ (number) electrons in the coordination sphere of the metal.
    • The \(\ce{Cu^{I}N4}\) complex is (tick):

    ☐ more stable than the \(\ce{Cu^{I}N5}\) complex or
    ☐ less stable than the \(\ce{Cu^{I}N5}\) complex.

    7.11 Fill in the solid boxes with the designation of the involved complexes in Fig. 2 and complete the sequence to achieve electrochemical control of the system using the following notation for the dashed boxes:

    Figure 7

    (rotation) ; \(+\ce{e-}\) ; \(−\ce{e-}\).

    Official English text of the problem.

  8. Problem 8: Identification and synthesis of inositols

    In this problem, we define “3D structure” and “perspective formula” as indicated for β-glucose in the following figure.

    Figure 1

    Inositols are cyclohexane-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexols. Some of these 6-membered carbocycles, in particular myo-inositol, are involved in a number of biological processes.

    Structure of myo-inositol

    8.1 Draw the structural formula of inositols, without stereochemical details.

    This family of molecules contains 9 different stereoisomers, including enantiomers.

    8.2 Draw all 3D structures of the stereoisomers that are optically active.

    The structure of a specific inositol, called myo-inositol, is studied here. Only one of its chair conformers is predominant and its structure can be deduced from its \({}^{1}\mathrm{H}\) NMR spectrum. The spectrum below (next page) was obtained at 600 MHz in \(\ce{D2O}\). No other signal from that compound was observed in the spectrum. The integration is indicated on the spectrum below each signal.

    8.3 Give the molecular formula of the predominant compound derived from myo-inositol in this sample that is consistent with the number of protons observed in the \({}^{1}\mathrm{H}\) NMR spectrum.

    Figure 2

    8.4 Based on the number and integrations of the proton signals, give the number of symmetry plane(s) that exist(s) in this molecule.

    8.5 Complete the following perspective drawing of the most stable conformation of myo-inositol. Then label each hydrogen with the corresponding letter (a, b, c or d) according to the NMR spectrum above. Proton a must be on carbon a on the following representation. Draw its 3D structure.

    Synthesis of inositols

    For medicinal applications, it is useful to synthesize some inositol phosphates on a large scale. We will study the synthesis of inositol 2 from bromodiol 1.

    Figure 3

    8.6 Choose the correct structural relationship(s) between 2 and 3. Tick relevant boxes.

    • ☐ enantiomers
    • ☐ epimers
    • ☐ diastereomers
    • ☐ atropoisomers

    Inositol 2 can be obtained from compound 1 in 7 steps.

    Figure 4

    8.7 Draw the 3D structure of 4.

    8.8 The reaction leading to 5 occurs on the double bond with the highest electron density. Consider the structure of 1-bromo-1,3-cyclo hexadiene below which is a substructure of 4. Circle the double bond with the highest electron density. Represent all the electronic effects due to the bromine.

    8.9 Draw the 3D structure of the major diastereoisomer 5.

    8.10 Give the total number of stereoisomers of 5 possibly obtained by this synthesis starting from enantiopure compound 1.

    8.11 For the step 5 → 6, another product with the same molecular formula, denoted 6′, can be produced. Draw the 3D structures of 6 and 6′.

    8.12 Draw the 3D structures of major diastereomers 8 and 9.

    8.13 Select the right set(s) of conditions A to obtain 2. Tick relevant boxes.

    • ☐ \(\ce{H2}\), \(\ce{Pd/C}\)
    • ☐ \(\ce{K2CO3}\), \(\ce{HF}\)
    • ☐ \(\ce{HCOOH}\), \(\ce{H2O}\)
    • ☐ \(\ce{BF3.OEt2}\)

    8.14 If the bromine is not present in compound 1, in addition to 2, another stereoisomer would be obtained. Considering that stereoselectivity of the reactions that take place in the synthesis remains unchanged and that the following steps involve the same number of equivalents as for 2, draw the 3D structure of this stereoisomer and give its relationship with 2 (tick relevant boxes).

    • ☐ enantiomers
    • ☐ epimers
    • ☐ diastereoisomers
    • ☐ atropoisomers

    8.15 During the synthesis of 2 from 1 choose the removal step(s) of protecting or directing groups.

    ☐ 1 → 4 ☐ 7 → 8
    ☐ 4 → 5 ☐ 8 → 9
    ☐ 5 → 6 ☐ 9 → 2
    ☐ 6 → 7

    Official English text of the problem.

  9. Problem 9: Synthesis of levobupivacaine

    Part I.

    The local anesthetic bupivacaine (marketed as Marcaine) is on the World Health Organization List of Essential Medicines. Although the drug is currently used as a racemic mixture, it was demonstrated that one enantiomer of bupivacaine, levobupivacaine, is less cardiotoxic and, therefore, safer than the racemate. Levobupivacaine can be synthesized from the natural amino acid L-lysine.

    Figure 1

    L-Lysine hydrochloride

    9.1 Assign the absolute configuration of the stereogenic center in L-lysine hydrochloride and justify your answer by classifying the substituents in order of their priority.

    Configuration: ☐ \(R\)  ☐ \(S\)

    Priority \(1 > 2 > 3 > 4\):

    Figure 2

    9.2 The prefix L in L-lysine refers to relative configuration. Choose all correct statements:

    • ☐ Natural L-amino acids are levorotatory.
    • ☐ Natural L-amino acids can be levorotatory or dextrorotatory.
    • ☐ All natural L-amino acids are \((S)\).
    • ☐ All natural L-amino acids are \((R)\).

    Often, we want only one of the amino groups in L-lysine to react. A \(\ce{Cu^2+}\) salt with excess aqueous hydroxide can selectively mask the reactivity of one of the amino groups. After the complex is formed, only the non-complexed \(\ce{NH2}\) group is available to react.

    9.3 Considering that L-lysine acts as a bidentate ligand and that two L-lysines coordinate to one \(\ce{Cu^2+}\) ion in the presence of aqueous hydroxide, draw the structure of the intermediate complex.

    Fortunately, in the synthesis of levobupivacaine shown below, the same amino group reacts even without \(\ce{Cu^2+}\) salt.

    Figure 3
    Figure 4

    From this point on, you can use the abbreviations proposed in the scheme above.

    9.4 Draw the structure of compound A, including the appropriate stereochemistry.

    9.5 Transformation of L-lysine into A is (choose proper answer(s)):

    • ☐ an enantioselective reaction
    • ☐ an enantiospecific reaction
    • ☐ a regioselective reaction

    9.6 Draw the structures of compounds B – F, including the appropriate stereochemistry.

    9.7 What is the role of DCC in the transformation C → D? Tick relevant boxes.

    • ☐ Protecting group for the amino group.
    • ☐ Protecting group for the hydroxy group.
    • ☐ Activating agent for the amide bond formation.

    9.8 TsCl is used in the synthesis to enable (tick relevant boxes):

    • ☐ Nucleophilic substitution of an amino group.
    • ☐ Electrophilic substitution of an amino group.
    • ☐ Nucleophilic substitution of a hydroxy group.
    • ☐ Electrophilic substitution of a hydroxy group.

    9.9 Mark all possible reagents which could be used as reagent H:

    ☐ diluted \(\ce{HCl}\) ☐ \(\ce{Zn/HCl}\)
    ☐ \(\ce{K2CO3}\) ☐ \(\ce{H2SO4}\)
    ☐ diluted \(\ce{KMnO4}\) ☐ diluted \(\ce{NaOH}\)
    ☐ \(\ce{SOCl2}\) ☐ \(\ce{PCl5}\)

    9.10 Draw the structure of levobupivacaine, including the appropriate stereochemistry.

    Part II.

    The synthesis of levobupivacaine requires the use of enantiomerically pure L-lysine. A common method to confirm the enantiomeric purity of aminoacids is their transformation into amide using Mosher's acid (see the structure of the \((S)\) isomer below).

    Figure 5

    \((S)\)-Mosher's acid

    9.11 Draw the structure of the amide formed when the \(\alpha\)-amino group of L-lysine is derivatized with \((S)\)-Mosher's acid. Clearly show the stereochemistry of each chiral center.

    9.12 How many products will be formed from racemic lysine and \((S)\)-Mosher's acid (consider that only the \(\alpha\)-amino group of lysine is derivatized)? Tick relevant boxes.

    • ☐ Two diastereoisomers.
    • ☐ Four diastereoisomers.
    • ☐ A racemic mixture of two enantiomers.
    • ☐ Four compounds: two enantiomers and two diastereoisomers.

    9.13 Choose the method(s) which can be used to quantitatively determine the enantiomeric purity of lysine after its derivatization with \((S)\)-Mosher's acid. Tick the relevant boxes:

    • ☐ NMR spectroscopy
    • ☐ Liquid chromatography
    • ☐ NMR spectroscopy
    • ☐ Liquid chromatography

    Official English text of the problem.