IChO 2019 · Theory problem 4

From gunpowder to the discovery of iodine

In the 19th century, the French entrepreneur B. Courtois specialized in the production of nitrate A (\(\ce{M_A(NO3)_m}\)), used for gunpowder. Initially imported from Asia, A was later produced from nitrate B (\(\ce{M_B(NO3)_n}\)) using exchange reaction with compound C, obtained from algae.

4.1 Find the formulas of nitrates A and B knowing that they are anhydrous salts of alkaline or alkaline-earth metal (\(\ce{M_A}\) and \(\ce{M_B}\)). One of the nitrates contains no more than 1 w% of non-metallic impurities while the other contains \(9 \pm 3\) w% of impurities. The content of metals \(\ce{M_A}\) and \(\ce{M_B}\) in the samples is 38.4 w% and 22.4 w%, respectively. Support your answer with calculations.

To obtain A, 262.2 g of solid compound C were added to the solution containing 442.8 g of B. B is known to be in excess. As a result, 190.0 g of white precipitate D were formed and removed by filtration. The filtrate was evaporated, and the obtained solid mixture E was heated until the mass of the sample (containing only nitrites, \(\ce{NO2-}\)) was constant. The only gaseous product was dioxygen: 60.48 dm³ at 0 °C and 1 atm (dioxygen can be considered as an ideal gas).

4.2 Calculate the composition (in w%) of mixture E considering that it contained only compounds A and B and no other impurities, and that C was taken in pure anhydrous state.

4.3 Determine the formulas of compounds C and D and write the balanced reaction equation between B and C.

In 1811, when working with algae ashes, Courtois observed that copper vessels were worn out faster than usual. While he was studying this phenomenon, his cat entered the laboratory and spilled the solution of concentrated sulfuric acid on the dry algae ashes: violet vapors instantly came out of the vessel (1, sulfuric acid is the oxidizing agent): iodine (\(\ce{I2}\)) had just been discovered! Iodine was the cause of the copper corrosion (2). However, because of the medicinal applications of iodine, Courtois opened a new manufacture to produce it by reaction of algae with chlorine (3). Nowadays, the iodine is prepared from the set of reactants (\(\ce{NO3-}\), \(\ce{I-}\), \(\ce{H+}\)) (4) or (\(\ce{IO3-}\), \(\ce{I-}\), \(\ce{H+}\)) (5).

4.4 Write balanced equations for reactions 1 – 5.

The solubility of iodine is very low in water but significantly increases when iodide ions are added. Together they form ions such as triiodide, \(\ce{I3-}\):

\[ \ce{I-(aq) + I2(aq)} = \ce{I3-(aq)} \qquad (6) \]

Equilibrium (6) can be studied through the extraction of \(\ce{I2}\) with dichloromethane. Indeed, \(\ce{I-}\) and \(\ce{I3-}\) do not dissolve in organic solvents but \(\ce{I2}\) does and, when extracted, it is 15 times more concentrated in dichloromethane than in water.

The following experiment was performed. To prepare the initial solution, a few crystals of solid iodine were dissolved in 50.0 cm³ of an aqueous solution of potassium iodide (0.1112 g). Then, 50.0 cm³ of dichloromethane were added, and the mixture was vigorously shaken until equilibration. After phase separation, each phase was titrated by 16.20 cm³ (organic phase) and by 8.00 cm³ (aqueous phase) of the standard aqueous solution of sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate (14.9080 g in 1.000 dm³ of solution) in the presence of starch. The process is schematically represented below:

Figure 1

4.5 Find the correspondence between the stages on the scheme (1–9) and the schematic pictures representing them (a–i).

Stages Picture
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

4.6 Write balanced equations for the two possible chemical reactions in the aqueous phase during the titration involving iodine species and sodium thiosulphate.

4.7 Calculate the mass of iodine used to prepare the initial solution.

4.8 Calculate the equilibrium constant \(K^\circ\) for equilibrium of reaction (6).

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 4.1 A is potassium nitrate, \(\ce{KNO3}\), SMILES [K+].[O-][N+](=O)[O-]. B is calcium nitrate, \(\ce{Ca(NO3)2}\), SMILES [Ca+2].[O-][N+](=O)[O-].[O-][N+](=O)[O-]. Their calculated impurity contents are approximately \(0.70\%\) and \(8.29\%\), respectively.

  • 4.2 Using standard atomic masses and the ideal-gas law, \[ \boxed{w(\mathbf A)=74.4\%,\qquad w(\mathbf B)=25.6\%.} \] The integer molar-mass convention, with \(V_m=22.4\ \mathrm{dm^3\,mol^{-1}}\), gives \(74.5\%\) and \(25.5\%\); see the calculation below.

  • 4.3 C is potassium carbonate, \(\ce{K2CO3}\), SMILES [K+].[K+].[O-]C(=O)[O-]. D is calcium carbonate, \(\ce{CaCO3}\), SMILES [Ca+2].[O-]C(=O)[O-]. \[ \boxed{\ce{Ca(NO3)2(aq) + K2CO3(aq) -> 2KNO3(aq) + CaCO3(s)}} \]

  • 4.4 One balanced set, taking sulfuric acid to be reduced to hydrogen sulfide in reaction (1), is \[ \begin{aligned} (1)\quad&\ce{H2SO4 + 8H+ + 8I- -> H2S + 4I2 + 4H2O}\\ (2)\quad&\ce{2Cu + I2 -> 2CuI}\\ (3)\quad&\ce{Cl2 + 2I- -> I2 + 2Cl-}\\ (4)\quad&\ce{2NO3- + 6I- + 8H+ -> 3I2 + 2NO + 4H2O}\\ (5)\quad&\ce{IO3- + 5I- + 6H+ -> 3I2 + 3H2O}. \end{aligned} \] Alternative sulfur reduction products for (1), and the alternative nitrogen dioxide equation for (4), are given in the solution.

  • 4.5 \[ \boxed{1\to d,\quad2\to a,\quad3\to e,\quad4\to h,\quad5\to g,\quad 6\to c,\quad7\to b,\quad8\to f,\quad9\to i.} \]

  • 4.6 \[ \boxed{\ce{I2 + 2S2O3^2- -> 2I- + S4O6^2-}} \] \[ \boxed{\ce{I3- + 2S2O3^2- -> 3I- + S4O6^2-}} \]

  • 4.7 \[ \boxed{m(\ce{I2})=0.1845\ \mathrm{g}.} \]

  • 4.8 Under the dilute-solution activity approximation, \[ \boxed{K^\circ\approx6.9\times10^2} \] dimensionless; the unrounded calculation gives approximately \(693\).

Solution

SMILES for ionic salts below give their constituent ions, not their crystal structures. Ordinary SMILES also do not fully describe resonance delocalization, electronic spin, or coordination and molecular geometry.

4.1 — Identification of the nitrates

Let \(z\) be the metal charge, \(M\) its atomic molar mass, and \(p\) the mass fraction of pure nitrate in a sample. The nitrate ion, \(\ce{NO3-}\), has SMILES [O-][N+](=O)[O-] and molar mass \(62.01\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\).

Because the impurities contribute no metal, the measured metal mass fraction is

\[ w=p\frac{M}{M+62.01z}. \]

Therefore,

\[ \frac{M}{z}=\frac{62.01w}{p-w}. \]

The two permitted purity intervals are \(0.99\leq p\leq1\) and \(0.88\leq p\leq0.94\).

Sample and assumed purity Required \(M/z\), \(\mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\) Conclusion
B, \(0.99\leq p\leq1\) \(17.90\)–\(18.13\) No alkali or alkaline-earth metal fits
B, \(0.88\leq p\leq0.94\) \(19.40\)–\(21.17\) Calcium fits: \(40.08/2=20.04\)
A, consequently \(0.99\leq p\leq1\) \(38.66\)–\(39.29\) Potassium fits: \(39.10/1=39.10\)

Thus the cations are potassium, \(\ce{K+}\), SMILES [K+], and calcium, \(\ce{Ca^2+}\), SMILES [Ca+2], giving

\[ \boxed{\mathbf A=\ce{KNO3},\qquad \mathbf B=\ce{Ca(NO3)2}.} \]

The impurity contents independently check this assignment:

\[ 100(1-p_A) = 100\left(1-\frac{0.384}{39.10/101.11}\right) =0.700\%, \]

\[ 100(1-p_B) = 100\left(1-\frac{0.224}{40.08/164.10}\right) =8.29\%. \]

These satisfy the stated limits.

4.2 — Composition of mixture E

Under the stated purity assumptions, the mass of the dry nitrate mixture is

\[ m_E=442.8+262.2-190.0 =\boxed{515.0\ \mathrm{g}}. \]

Using the stipulated nitrite-only decomposition,

\[ \ce{2KNO3 -> 2KNO2 + O2}, \]

\[ \ce{Ca(NO3)2 -> Ca(NO2)2 + O2}. \]

The products are potassium nitrite, \(\ce{KNO2}\), SMILES [K+].[O-]N=O; calcium nitrite, \(\ce{Ca(NO2)2}\), SMILES [Ca+2].[O-]N=O.[O-]N=O; and dioxygen, \(\ce{O2}\), SMILES O=O. The nitrite ion itself is [O-]N=O.

At \(273.15\ \mathrm K\) and \(101325\ \mathrm{Pa}\),

\[ n(\ce{O2}) =\frac{PV}{RT} =\frac{101325(60.48\times10^{-3})} {8.3144626(273.15)} =2.69832\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

Let \(a=n(\ce{KNO3})\) and \(b=n(\ce{Ca(NO3)2})\) in E. The oxygen and mass balances give

\[ \frac a2+b=2.69832, \]

\[ 101.11a+164.10b=515.0. \]

Solving without rounding intermediate values,

\[ a=3.78836\ \mathrm{mol},\qquad b=0.804137\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

Consequently,

\[ m_A=383.041\ \mathrm{g},\qquad m_B=131.959\ \mathrm{g}, \]

and

\[ \boxed{w_A=74.4\%,\qquad w_B=25.6\%.} \]

The numerical data also warrant stating the rounding convention explicitly. With rounded molar masses \(M_A=101\) and \(M_B=164\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\), and \(V_m=22.4\ \mathrm{dm^3\,mol^{-1}}\), the equations instead become

\[ a+2b=5.400,\qquad101a+164b=515.0. \]

They give exactly

\[ a=3.800,\qquad b=0.8000\ \mathrm{mol}, \]

hence

\[ w_A=\frac{383.8}{515.0}(100)=74.5\%,\qquad w_B=\frac{131.2}{515.0}(100)=25.5\%. \]

This rounded convention also reproduces the carbonate masses in 4.3 exactly.

4.3 — Identification of C and D

Initially,

\[ n_{B,0}=\frac{442.8}{164.10} =2.69835\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

The amount of calcium removed into D is therefore

\[ n_{\mathrm{Ca,\ precipitated}} =2.69835-0.804137 =1.89422\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

The precipitate mass per mole of calcium is

\[ \frac{190.0}{1.89422} \approx100.3\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}. \]

Subtracting the calcium contribution leaves approximately

\[ 100.3-40.08\approx60.2\ \mathrm{g} \]

of anion per mole of calcium. This identifies carbonate, \(\ce{CO3^2-}\), SMILES [O-]C(=O)[O-], whose molar mass is approximately \(60.01\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\). Calcium carbonate is a white, sparingly soluble precipitate.

The corresponding potassium salt is potassium carbonate. Its inferred molar mass is

\[ M_C=\frac{262.2}{a/2} =\frac{262.2}{3.78836/2} \approx138.4\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}, \]

consistent with \(\ce{K2CO3}\), \(M=138.21\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\), within the numerical convention discussed above.

With integer molar masses, the identification is exact:

\[ n_C=n_D=1.900\ \mathrm{mol}, \]

\[ M_C=\frac{262.2}{1.900}=138.0\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}, \qquad M_D=\frac{190.0}{1.900}=100.0\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}. \]

Thus

\[ \boxed{\mathbf C=\ce{K2CO3},\qquad \mathbf D=\ce{CaCO3}} \]

and

\[ \boxed{\ce{Ca(NO3)2(aq) + K2CO3(aq) -> 2KNO3(aq) + CaCO3(s)}}. \]

4.4 — Reactions producing iodine and corroding copper

The additional species used in these equations are identified below.

Name Formula SMILES
Sulfuric acid \(\ce{H2SO4}\) OS(=O)(=O)O
Hydrogen ion \(\ce{H+}\) [H+]
Iodide ion \(\ce{I-}\) [I-]
Iodine \(\ce{I2}\) II
Hydrogen sulfide \(\ce{H2S}\) S
Water \(\ce{H2O}\) O
Sulfur dioxide \(\ce{SO2}\) O=S=O
Elemental sulfur, cyclic molecular form \(\ce{S8}\) S1SSSSSSS1
Copper \(\ce{Cu}\) [Cu]
Copper(I) iodide \(\ce{CuI}\) [Cu+].[I-]
Chlorine \(\ce{Cl2}\) ClCl
Chloride ion \(\ce{Cl-}\) [Cl-]
Nitric oxide \(\ce{NO}\) [N]=O
Nitrogen dioxide \(\ce{NO2}\) O=[N+][O-]
Iodate ion \(\ce{IO3-}\) [O-]I(=O)=O

The copper SMILES represents an atom, not the metallic lattice. The sulfur-ring SMILES does not specify its crown conformation; elemental sulfur is written as \(\ce{S}\) for stoichiometric bookkeeping below.

Reaction (1). Iodide is oxidized from \(-1\) to \(0\). If sulfur is reduced from \(+6\) to \(-2\), eight iodide ions supply the eight electrons required:

\[ \boxed{\ce{H2SO4 + 8H+ + 8I- -> H2S + 4I2 + 4H2O}}. \]

The statement does not specify the sulfur reduction product. Concentrated sulfuric acid and iodide can also give sulfur dioxide or elemental sulfur; their balanced equations are

\[ \boxed{\ce{H2SO4 + 2H+ + 2I- -> SO2 + I2 + 2H2O}}, \]

\[ \boxed{\ce{H2SO4 + 6H+ + 6I- -> S + 3I2 + 4H2O}}. \]

Reaction (2). Copper is oxidized to copper(I), while iodine is reduced to iodide:

\[ \boxed{\ce{2Cu(s) + I2 -> 2CuI(s)}}. \]

Reaction (3). Chlorine oxidizes iodide to iodine and is itself reduced to chloride:

\[ \boxed{\ce{Cl2 + 2I- -> I2 + 2Cl-}}. \]

Reaction (4). Taking the nitrate reduction product to be nitric oxide, nitrogen changes from \(+5\) to \(+2\), accepting three electrons per nitrogen atom:

\[ \boxed{\ce{2NO3- + 6I- + 8H+ -> 3I2 + 2NO + 4H2O}}. \]

If nitrogen dioxide is instead the reduction product, the corresponding balanced equation is

\[ \ce{2NO3- + 2I- + 4H+ -> I2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O}. \]

Reaction (5). Iodate iodine changes from \(+5\) to \(0\); five iodide ions supply the five electrons. The six iodine atoms form three iodine molecules:

\[ \boxed{\ce{IO3- + 5I- + 6H+ -> 3I2 + 3H2O}}. \]

4.5 — Correspondence between stages and pictures

Dichloromethane, \(\ce{CH2Cl2}\), SMILES ClCCl, is denser than water, so the organic phase is the lower layer. Adding aqueous thiosulfate to the separated organic phase creates a new upper aqueous layer.

Stage Picture Description
1 d Two layers: brown aqueous phase above the dark organic phase
2 a Separated aqueous phase, brown
3 e Separated organic phase, dark purple
4 h Aqueous phase near the endpoint, yellowish
5 g Organic-phase titration near the endpoint: yellowish upper aqueous layer and pink lower organic layer
6 c Starch added to the aqueous sample: dark blue
7 b Starch added during organic-phase titration: blue upper aqueous layer and pink lower organic layer
8 f Aqueous titration completed: colourless
9 i Organic-phase titration completed: both layers colourless

The blue colour arises from iodine/polyiodide associated with helical starch chains. Starch and its indicator complex do not have a single, definite molecular composition and therefore have no unique molecular SMILES.

4.6 — Titration reactions

The relevant ions are:

Name Formula SMILES
Triiodide \(\ce{I3-}\) I[I-]I
Thiosulfate \(\ce{S2O3^2-}\) [O-]S(=O)(=O)[S-]
Tetrathionate \(\ce{S4O6^2-}\) [O-]S(=O)(=O)SSS(=O)(=O)[O-]

Triiodide is linear and has three-centre, four-electron bonding. Its SMILES is a formal connectivity representation and does not encode that bonding description or geometry.

Thiosulfate is oxidized to tetrathionate:

\[ \ce{2S2O3^2- -> S4O6^2- + 2e-}. \]

Combining this with the reduction of dissolved iodine gives

\[ \boxed{\ce{I2 + 2S2O3^2- -> 2I- + S4O6^2-}}. \]

For triiodide,

\[ \boxed{\ce{I3- + 2S2O3^2- -> 3I- + S4O6^2-}}. \]

Thus one mole of either \(\ce{I2}\) or \(\ce{I3-}\) consumes two moles of thiosulfate. Each triiodide ion contains one titratable iodine-molecule equivalent.

4.7 — Mass of iodine initially added

Sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate, \(\ce{Na2S2O3*5H2O}\), has SMILES [Na+].[Na+].[O-]S(=O)(=O)[S-].O.O.O.O.O and molar mass approximately \(248.18\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\).

The titrant concentration is

\[ c_T=\frac{14.9080\ \mathrm g} {(248.18\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}})(1.000\ \mathrm{dm^3})} =0.0600693\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}. \]

Both phase titrations together measure all the initially added molecular iodine, including the portion converted into triiodide:

\[ n_0(\ce{I2}) =\frac{c_T}{2}(V_{\mathrm{org}}+V_{\mathrm{aq}}). \]

Therefore,

\[ n_0(\ce{I2}) =\frac{0.0600693}{2}(0.01620+0.00800) =7.26839\times10^{-4}\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

Using \(M(\ce{I2})=253.80\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\),

\[ m_0(\ce{I2}) =(7.26839\times10^{-4})(253.80) =\boxed{0.1845\ \mathrm g}. \]

The iodide originally supplied by potassium iodide is not counted as added molecular iodine and does not itself consume thiosulfate.

4.8 — Equilibrium constant

Potassium iodide, \(\ce{KI}\), has SMILES [K+].[I-] and molar mass \(166.00\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\).

First determine the species present after extraction but before titration.

The organic phase contains only molecular iodine among the iodine species. Hence

\[ n_{\ce{I2},\mathrm{org}} =\frac{c_TV_{\mathrm{org,titrant}}}{2} =\frac{(0.0600693)(0.01620)}{2} =4.86561\times10^{-4}\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

Its concentration in the \(0.0500\ \mathrm{dm^3}\) organic phase is

\[ [\ce{I2}]_{\mathrm{org}} =\frac{4.86561\times10^{-4}}{0.0500} =9.73123\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}. \]

The partition ratio applies to free molecular iodine:

\[ \frac{[\ce{I2}]_{\mathrm{org}}}{[\ce{I2}]_{\mathrm{aq}}}=15. \]

Thus

\[ \boxed{[\ce{I2}]_{\mathrm{aq}} =6.48748\times10^{-4}\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}}. \]

The aqueous titration measures the sum of molecular iodine and triiodide:

\[ n_{\ce{I2},\mathrm{aq}}+n_{\ce{I3-},\mathrm{aq}} =\frac{(0.0600693)(0.00800)}{2} =2.40277\times10^{-4}\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

Consequently,

\[ [\ce{I3-}] =\frac{2.40277\times10^{-4}}{0.0500} -6.48748\times10^{-4} =\boxed{4.15680\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}}. \]

The initial amount of potassium iodide is

\[ n_{\ce{KI}}=\frac{0.1112}{166.00} =6.69880\times10^{-4}\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

Formation of each triiodide ion consumes one iodide ion. Because neither ionic species enters the organic phase,

\[ [\ce{I-}]+[\ce{I3-}] =\frac{6.69880\times10^{-4}}{0.0500} =0.0133976\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}. \]

Therefore,

\[ \boxed{[\ce{I-}] =0.0133976-0.00415680 =9.24079\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}}. \]

The thermodynamic equilibrium constant is

\[ K^\circ =\frac{a_{\ce{I3-}}} {a_{\ce{I-}}a_{\ce{I2}}}. \]

Taking \(a_i\simeq[i]/c^\circ\), with \(c^\circ=1\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}\),

\[ K^\circ\simeq \frac{[\ce{I3-}]c^\circ} {[\ce{I-}][\ce{I2}]_{\mathrm{aq}}}. \]

Substitution gives

\[ K^\circ\simeq \frac{(4.15680\times10^{-3})(1)} {(9.24079\times10^{-3})(6.48748\times10^{-4})} =693.4. \]

Hence

\[ \boxed{K^\circ\approx6.9\times10^2} \]

with no units.

The solution was checked against the official solution.