IChO 2019 · Theory problem 1

Infinite well and butadiene

The buta-1,3-diene molecule is often written \(\ce{CH2=CH-CH=CH2}\), with alternating single and double bonds. Nevertheless, its chemical reactivity is not consistent with this description and the \(\pi\) electrons are better described by a distribution along the three bonds:

Figure 1

This system can be modeled as a 1D box (i.e. infinite well) where the electrons are free. The energy of an electron in an infinite well of length \(L\) is:

\[ E_n=\frac{n^2h^2}{8m_eL^2} \]

where \(n\) is a non-zero positive integer.

1.1 Two different models are studied. Sketch at least the three lowest-energy levels \(E_n\) for each model in the respective diagrams, showing how the relative energy levels differ within and between models.

1.2 Place the \(\pi\) electrons for model 1 in the previous diagrams and express the total energy of the \(\pi\) system in model 1, as a function of \(h\), \(m_e\) and \(d\).

1.3 Place the \(\pi\) electrons for model 2 in the previous diagrams and express the total energy of the \(\pi\) system in model 2, as a function of \(h\), \(m_e\) and \(d\).

The conjugation energy is the total energy of the actual \(\pi\) system, minus the sum of the energies of ethylene molecules involving the same number of electrons.

1.4 Express the conjugation energy \(\Delta E_{\mathrm c}\) of butadiene, as a function of \(h\), \(m_e\) and \(d\).

Models 1 and 2 are too simplistic. A newä=ú§model will be detailed in the following.

1.5 Draw three other resonance structures of butadiene using Lewis notation.

To take into account the size of carbon atoms, model 2 is now modified into model 3, as follows:

  • the new length of the well is \(L\) and is located between the abscissa 0 and \(L\);
  • the carbon atoms are located at the abscissas \(L/8\); \(3L/8\); \(5L/8\) and \(7L/8\).

For each level \(n\), the \(\pi\) wavefunction is:

\[ \Psi_n(x)=\sqrt{\frac{2}{L}}\sin\left(\frac{n\pi x}{L}\right) \]

and the \(\pi\) electron density for a system with \(N\) \(\pi\)-electrons is:

\[ \rho(x)=2\sum_{i=1}^{N/2}|\Psi_i(x)|^2 \]

The four \(\pi\) wavefunctions, which correspond to the molecular orbitals of the \(\pi\) system, are depicted below (arbitrary order).

Figure 2

1.6 Sort the energies of the four \(\pi\) wavefunctions (\(E_A\), \(E_B\), \(E_C\) and \(E_D\)).

1.7 Give the labels (A, B, C or D) of the orbitals that are filled with electrons in butadiene.

1.8 Within model 3, give the values of the \(\pi\) wavefunctions \(\psi_n\) for occupied levels at positions 0, \(L/4\) and \(L/2\), for \(n=1\) and \(n=2\), as a function of \(L\).

1.9 Within model 3, give the value of the \(\pi\) electron density at positions 0, \(L/4\) and \(L/2\).

1.10 Draw the \(\pi\) electron density between 0 and \(L\).

1.11 Sort the following CC bonds (B1, B2, …, B5) by increasing length, using the symbols = or <:

B1: C1–C2 in the butadiene molecule

B2: C2–C3 in the butadiene molecule

B3: C3–C4 in the butadiene molecule

B4: C–C in the ethane molecule

B5: C–C in the ethene molecule

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

For 1.1–1.4, assume that model 1 consists of two independent wells, each of length \(d\), and model 2 consists of one well of length \(3d\). The problem as printed does not define these models. Define \[ \varepsilon=\frac{h^2}{8m_ed^2}. \]

  • 1.1 Each model-1 well has its first three levels at \(\varepsilon,4\varepsilon,9\varepsilon\). Model 2 has its first three levels at \(\varepsilon/9,4\varepsilon/9,\varepsilon\). Use a common energy scale; model 2’s third level coincides with model 1’s first level.

  • 1.2 Put two electrons with opposite spins in \(n=1\) of each separate well: \[ \boxed{E_{\pi,1}=\frac{h^2}{2m_ed^2}}. \]

  • 1.3 Put two electrons in \(n=1\) and two in \(n=2\): \[ \boxed{E_{\pi,2}=\frac{5h^2}{36m_ed^2}}. \]

  • 1.4 \[ \boxed{\Delta E_{\mathrm c}=-\frac{13h^2}{36m_ed^2}}. \]

  • 1.5 Three valid charge-separated resonance contributors of buta-1,3-diene are the C1-negative/C4-positive contributor, [CH2-]C=C[CH2+]; the C1-positive/C4-negative contributor, [CH2+]C=C[CH2-]; and the C1-negative/C2-positive contributor, [CH2-][CH+]C=C. Each negatively charged carbon has one lone pair.

  • 1.6 \[ \boxed{E_C<E_A<E_B<E_D}, \qquad n_C=1,\ n_A=2,\ n_B=3,\ n_D=4. \]

  • 1.7 \(\boxed{C\text{ and }A}\), each containing two electrons.

  • 1.8 The pairs \((\psi_1,\psi_2)\) are \[ \boxed{ \begin{aligned} x=0 &: (0,0),\\ x=L/4 &: \left(\frac1{\sqrt L},\sqrt{\frac2L}\right),\\ x=L/2 &: \left(\sqrt{\frac2L},0\right). \end{aligned}} \]

  • 1.9 \[ \boxed{\rho(0)=0,\qquad \rho(L/4)=\frac6L,\qquad \rho(L/2)=\frac4L}. \]

  • 1.10 \[ \boxed{\rho(x)=\frac4L\left[ \sin^2\left(\frac{\pi x}{L}\right)+ \sin^2\left(\frac{2\pi x}{L}\right)\right]}. \] The curve is symmetric about \(L/2\), vanishes at both walls, has maxima \(25/(4L)\) at approximately \(0.290L\) and \(0.710L\), and has a local minimum \(4/L\) at \(L/2\).

  • 1.11 \[ \boxed{\mathrm{B5}<\mathrm{B1}=\mathrm{B3}<\mathrm{B2}<\mathrm{B4}}. \]

Solution

Buta-1,3-diene, commonly called butadiene, has SMILES C=CC=C. Its four \(sp^2\) carbon atoms supply four \(\pi\) electrons. Within each well, a spatial energy level can accommodate two electrons with opposite spins.

1.1

For a well of any fixed length, \[ E_1:E_2:E_3=1:4:9. \] Thus the energy levels become farther apart as \(n\) increases.

Using the assumed lengths \(d\) and \(3d\), \[ E_n^{(1)}=n^2\varepsilon,\qquad E_n^{(2)}=\frac{n^2}{9}\varepsilon. \]

Level Model 1: each separate well Model 2: single well
\(n=1\) \(\varepsilon\) \(\varepsilon/9\)
\(n=2\) \(4\varepsilon\) \(4\varepsilon/9\)
\(n=3\) \(9\varepsilon\) \(\varepsilon\)

For the drawing, use the same vertical energy scale and the same zero for both models. Draw two identical ladders for model 1, one for each localized electron pair, and one ladder for model 2.

The first two gaps in each model-1 ladder are \(3\varepsilon\) and \(5\varepsilon\). The corresponding model-2 gaps are nine times smaller. In particular, \[ E_3^{(2)}=E_1^{(1)}. \]

1.2

Each localized well contains two electrons. Both occupy its lowest level, with opposite spins. Draw \(\uparrow\downarrow\) on \(n=1\) in each well, leaving higher levels empty.

Adding the four one-electron energies, \[ E_{\pi,1}=2E_1^{(1)}+2E_1^{(1)} =4\frac{h^2}{8m_ed^2} =\boxed{\frac{h^2}{2m_ed^2}}. \]

1.3

In the single well, only two electrons can occupy \(n=1\), so the remaining two occupy \(n=2\). Draw \(\uparrow\downarrow\) on each of these levels; \(n=3\) is empty.

Therefore, \[ \begin{aligned} E_{\pi,2} &=2E_1^{(2)}+2E_2^{(2)}\\ &=2(1^2+2^2)\frac{h^2}{8m_e(3d)^2}\\ &=\boxed{\frac{5h^2}{36m_ed^2}}. \end{aligned} \]

1.4

Ethene, also called ethylene, has SMILES C=C and contains two \(\pi\) electrons. Two ethene molecules therefore provide the four-electron reference represented by model 1.

Using the definition in the question, \[ \begin{aligned} \Delta E_{\mathrm c} &=E_{\pi,2}-E_{\pi,1}\\ &=\frac{5h^2}{36m_ed^2}-\frac{h^2}{2m_ed^2}\\ &=\boxed{-\frac{13h^2}{36m_ed^2}}. \end{aligned} \] The negative sign denotes stabilization of the \(\pi\) system through delocalization within this model.

All these energies have units of joules when \(h\), \(m_e\), and \(d\) are expressed in SI units.

More generally, if the missing diagrams give each localized well length \(\ell_1\) and the delocalized well length \(\ell_2\), the results are \[ E_{\pi,1}=\frac{h^2}{2m_e\ell_1^2},\qquad E_{\pi,2}=\frac{5h^2}{4m_e\ell_2^2}, \] and \[ \boxed{\Delta E_{\mathrm c} =\frac{h^2}{8m_e} \left(\frac{10}{\ell_2^2}-\frac{4}{\ell_1^2}\right)}. \]

1.5

Number the carbon atoms from left to right as in the statement. Three possible additional Lewis resonance contributors are:

Contributor of buta-1,3-diene Lewis skeleton SMILES
\(R_1\): C1-negative/C4-positive \(\ce{H2C^{-}-CH=CH-CH2^{+}}\) [CH2-]C=C[CH2+]
\(R_2\): C1-positive/C4-negative \(\ce{H2C^{+}-CH=CH-CH2^{-}}\) [CH2+]C=C[CH2-]
\(R_3\): C1-negative/C2-positive \(\ce{H2C^{-}-CH^{+}-CH=CH2}\) [CH2-][CH+]C=C

For the Lewis drawings, place one lone pair on every negatively charged carbon. Each positively charged carbon has three bonds, no lone pair, and an empty \(p\) orbital. Connect the contributors to the original structure using resonance double-headed arrows.

Their electron-pair movements from the original \(\ce{CH2=CH-CH=CH2}\) structure are:

  • For \(R_1\), move the C1=C2 \(\pi\) pair onto C1, and move the C3=C4 \(\pi\) pair into the C2–C3 bond.
  • For \(R_2\), perform the mirror-image movements: move the C3=C4 \(\pi\) pair onto C4, and the C1=C2 \(\pi\) pair into C2–C3.
  • For \(R_3\), move only the C1=C2 \(\pi\) pair onto C1.

Each structure preserves the atomic connectivity, total charge, and total electron count. These charge-separated contributors have smaller weights than the uncharged structure.

The SMILES specify connectivity and formal charges. For resonance, retain the same nuclear geometry throughout; no particular conformation is specified in the question.

1.6

The wavefunction \[ \psi_n(x)=\sqrt{\frac2L}\sin\left(\frac{n\pi x}{L}\right) \] has \(n-1\) internal nodes. Counting the nodes in the diagrams gives:

Label Internal nodes \(n\) Energy in units of \(h^2/(8m_eL^2)\)
C 0 1 1
A 1 2 4
B 2 3 9
D 3 4 16

Consequently, \[ \boxed{E_C<E_A<E_B<E_D}. \]

1.7

The four electrons occupy the two lowest orbitals, two electrons per orbital: \[ \boxed{C:\uparrow\downarrow,\qquad A:\uparrow\downarrow}. \] Orbitals B and D are empty in the ground state.

1.8

Substitute each position into the given wavefunction. The required sine values are \[ \sin0=0,\qquad \sin\frac{\pi}{4}=\frac1{\sqrt2},\qquad \sin\frac{\pi}{2}=1,\qquad \sin\pi=0. \]

Thus:

Wavefunction \(x=0\) \(x=L/4\) \(x=L/2\)
\(\psi_1(x)\) \(0\) \(\displaystyle \frac1{\sqrt L}\) \(\displaystyle \sqrt{\frac2L}\)
\(\psi_2(x)\) \(0\) \(\displaystyle \sqrt{\frac2L}\) \(0\)

These wavefunctions have dimensions of length\(^{-1/2}\).

1.9

For four electrons, \(N/2=2\), so \[ \rho(x)=2\bigl(|\psi_1(x)|^2+|\psi_2(x)|^2\bigr). \]

Therefore, \[ \rho(0)=0, \] \[ \rho(L/4)=2\left(\frac1L+\frac2L\right)=\boxed{\frac6L}, \] and \[ \rho(L/2)=2\left(\frac2L+0\right)=\boxed{\frac4L}. \]

This is an electron number density per unit length; its units are \(\mathrm{m^{-1}}\) when \(L\) is in metres.

1.10

Substituting both occupied wavefunctions gives \[ \boxed{\rho(x)=\frac4L\left[ \sin^2\left(\frac{\pi x}{L}\right) +\sin^2\left(\frac{2\pi x}{L}\right)\right]}. \]

For a precise sketch, label the horizontal axis \(x\), from \(0\) to \(L\), and the vertical axis \(\rho(x)\). Draw a smooth curve with these features:

  • It starts at \((0,0)\) and ends at \((L,0)\), with horizontal tangents at both walls.
  • It is symmetric about \(x=L/2\).
  • It passes through \((L/4,6/L)\) and \((3L/4,6/L)\).
  • It has a local minimum at \((L/2,4/L)\), so the density remains positive at the centre.
  • It has two equal maxima, one on either side of the centre.

To locate the maxima, \[ \rho'(x)=\frac{4\pi}{L^2} \sin\left(\frac{2\pi x}{L}\right) \left[1+4\cos\left(\frac{2\pi x}{L}\right)\right]. \] The maxima satisfy \[ \cos\left(\frac{2\pi x}{L}\right)=-\frac14. \] Their positions are \[ x_{\max,1}=\frac{L}{2\pi}\arccos\left(-\frac14\right) \approx0.290L, \qquad x_{\max,2}=L-x_{\max,1}\approx0.710L. \]

At either maximum, \[ \sin^2\left(\frac{\pi x}{L}\right)=\frac58,\qquad \sin^2\left(\frac{2\pi x}{L}\right)=\frac{15}{16}, \] hence \[ \boxed{\rho_{\max}=\frac4L\left(\frac58+\frac{15}{16}\right) =\frac{25}{4L}}. \]

The density also has the required normalization: \[ \int_0^L\rho(x)\,dx =\frac4L\left(\frac L2+\frac L2\right)=4, \] accounting for all four \(\pi\) electrons.

1.11

The outer bonds B1 and B3 are equivalent by symmetry. Their midpoints are \(L/4\) and \(3L/4\), where the model gives greater \(\pi\)-electron density than at the central-bond midpoint \(L/2\).

Chemically, conjugation gives the central bond some double-bond character, while the outer bonds retain greater double-bond character than the central bond. The outer bonds have slightly less double-bond character than the localized double bond in ethene, C=C. The central bond has more bonding character than the single bond in ethane, CC.

Using the usual relationship between greater bond order and shorter bond length, \[ \boxed{\mathrm{B5}<\mathrm{B1}=\mathrm{B3}<\mathrm{B2}<\mathrm{B4}}. \]

The solution was checked against the official solution.