IPhO 2019 · Theory problem 2

The Physics of a Microwave Oven

This question discusses the generation of microwave radiation in a microwave oven, and its use to heat up food. The microwave radiation is generated in a device called “magnetron”. Part A concerns the operation of the magnetron, while part B deals with the absorption of microwave radiation in food.

Figure 1

Figure 1

Part A: The structure and operation of a magnetron (6.6 points)

A magnetron is a device for the generation of microwave radiation, either in pulses (for radar applications), or continuously (e.g., in a microwave oven). The magnetron has a mode of self-amplifying oscillations. Supplying the magnetron with static (non-alternating) voltage quickly excites this mode. The microwave radiation thus created is transmitted out of the magnetron.

A typical microwave oven magnetron consists of a solid copper cylindrical cathode (with radius \(a\)) and a surrounding anode (with radius \(b\)). The latter has the shape of a thick cylindrical shell into which cylindrical cavities are drilled. These cavities are known as “resonators”. One of the resonators is coupled to an antenna which will transmit the microwave energy out; we will ignore the antenna in the following. All internal spaces are in vacuum. We will consider a typical magnetron with eight resonators, as depicted in Figure 1(a). The three-dimensional structure of a single resonator is shown in Figure 1(b). As indicated there, each of the eight cavities behaves as an inductor-capacitor (LC) resonator, with operating frequency \(f=2.45\,\mathrm{GHz}\).

A static uniform magnetic field is applied along the magnetron's longitudinal axis, pointing out of the page in Figure 1(a). In addition, a constant voltage is applied between the anode (positive potential) and the cathode (negative potential). Electrons emitted from the cathode reach the anode and charge it, such that they excite an oscillation mode in which the sign of the charge is opposite between every two adjacent resonators. The oscillation of the cavities amplify these oscillations.

The process described above creates an alternating electric field with the aforementioned frequency \(f=2.45\,\mathrm{GHz}\) (blue lines in Figure 1(a); the static field is not plotted) in the space between the cathode and the anode, in addition to the static field caused by the applied constant voltage. In the steady state, the typical amplitude of the alternating electric field between the anode and the cathode is approximately \(\frac13\) of the static electric field there. The electron motion in the space between the cathode and the anode is affected by both the static and the alternating parts of the field. This causes electrons that reach the anode to transfer about \(80\%\) of the energy they acquire from the static field into the alternating field. A minority of the ejected electrons returns to the cathode and releases additional electrons, further amplifying the alternating field.

Each resonator can be thought of as a capacitor and an inductor, see Figure 1(b). The capacitance mainly arises from the planar parts of the resonator surface, while the inductance stems from the cylindrical part. Assume that the current in the resonator flows uniformly very close to the surface of its cylindrical cavity, and that the strength of the magnetic field generated by this current is \(0.6\) times that of an ideal infinite solenoid. The various lengths defining the resonator geometry are given in Figure 1(b). The vacuum permittivity and permeability are \(\varepsilon_0=8.85\cdot10^{-12}\,\mathrm{F/m}\) and \(\mu_0=4\pi\cdot10^{-7}\,\mathrm{H/m}\), respectively.

A.1 — 0.4pt

Use the above data to estimate the frequency \(f_{\mathrm{est}}\) of a single resonator. (Your result may differ from the actual value, \(f=2.45\,\mathrm{GHz}\). Use the actual value in the remainder of the question.)

Task A.2 below does not deal with the magnetron itself, but helps to introduce some of the relevant physics. Consider an electron moving in free space under the influence of a uniform electric field directed along the negative \(y\) axis, \(\vec E=-E_0\hat y\), and a uniform magnetic field directed along the positive \(z\) axis, \(\vec B=B_0\hat z\) (\(E_0\) and \(B_0\) are positive; \(\hat x,\hat y,\hat z\) are unit vectors oriented in the conventional manner). Let us denote the electron velocity at time \(t\) by \(\vec u(t)\). The drift velocity \(\vec u_D\) of the electron is defined as its average velocity. We denote by \(m\) and \(-e\) the mass and charge of the electron, respectively.

A.2 — 1.5pt

In each of the following two cases, find \(\vec u_D\). In addition, draw in the Answer Sheet the electron's trajectory (in the lab frame) during the time interval \(0<t<\frac{4\pi m}{eB_0}\) if:

  1. at \(t=0\) the electron velocity is \(\vec u(0)=(3E_0/B_0)\hat x\),
  2. at \(t=0\) the electron velocity is \(\vec u(0)=-(3E_0/B_0)\hat x\).

We now resume our discussion of the magnetron. The distance between the cathode and the anode is \(15\,\mathrm{mm}\). Assume that, due to the aforementioned energy loss to the alternating fields, the maximal kinetic energy of each electron does not exceed \(K_{\max}=800\,\mathrm{eV}\). The static magnetic field strength is \(B_0=0.3\,\mathrm T\). The electron mass and charge are \(m=9.1\cdot10^{-31}\,\mathrm{kg}\) and \(-e=-1.6\cdot10^{-19}\,\mathrm C\), respectively.

A.3 — 0.4pt

Numerically estimate the maximal radius \(r\) of the electron motion trajectory in the reference frame in which this motion is approximately circular, considering this reference frame as approximately inertial.

Figure 2

Figure 2

A.4 — 1.2pt

Figure 2 depicts the alternating electric field lines between the anode and the cathode at a given moment in time (the static field is not plotted). Indicate in the Answer Sheet which of the electrons positioned at A,B,C,D and E will drift towards the anode, which will drift towards the cathode and which will drift at a direction perpendicular to the radius at that moment.

Figure 3

Figure 3

Figure 3 depicts the alternating electric field lines between the anode and the cathode (the static field is not plotted) at a given moment in time. The positions of six electrons at that moment are denoted by A, B, C, D, E and F. All electrons are at the same distance from the cathode.

A.5 — 1.2pt

Consider the situation shown in Figure 3. For each of the six electron pairs AB, AC, BC, DE, DF, EF, indicate in the Answer Sheet whether their drift will cause the angle between their position vectors (measured from the cathode’s center O) to increase or decrease at that moment.

Figure 4

Figure 4

The pattern you have discovered in Task A.5 acts as a focusing mechanism, concentrating the electrons in the space between the cathode and anode into spokes. Figure 4 depicts one such spoke, denoted by S.

A.6 — 0.8pt

Depict in the Answer Sheet the other spokes at that moment. Indicate by arrows their direction of rotation, and calculate their average angular velocity \(\omega_s\).

Make the approximation that the total electric field half-way between the cathode and the anode is equal to its average static value along a radial line from the cathode to the anode, and that the spokes are approximately radial in that region. The cathode and anode radii (\(a\) and \(b\), respectively) are defined in Figure 4.

A.7 — 1.1pt

Find an approximate expression for the static voltage \(V_0\) required for operating the magnetron in the manner described. (The expression you will find gives an approximation for the minimal value required for the magnetron operation; the optimal voltage is somewhat higher.)

Part B: The interaction of microwave radiation with water molecules (3.4 points)

This part deals with the usage of microwave radiation (radiated by the magnetron antenna into the food chamber) for cooking, that is, heating up a lossy dielectric material such as water, either pure or salty (which is our model for, say, soup).

An electric dipole is a configuration of two equal and opposite electric charges \(q\) and \(-q\) a small distance \(d\) apart. The electric dipole vector points from the negative to the positive charge, and its magnitude is \(p=qd\).

A time-dependent electric field \(\vec E(t)=E(t)\hat x\) is applied on a single dipole of moment \(\vec p(t)\) with constant magnitude \(p_0=|\vec p(t)|\). The angle between the dipole and the electric field is \(\theta(t)\).

B.1 — 0.5pt

Write expressions for both the magnitude of the torque \(\tau(t)\) applied by the electric field on the dipole and the power \(H_i(t)\) delivered by the field to the dipole, in terms of \(p_0\), \(E(t)\), \(\theta(t)\) and their derivatives.

Water molecules are polar, hence can be treated as electric dipoles. Due to the strong hydrogen bonds between water molecules in liquid water, one cannot treat them as independent dipoles. Rather, one should refer to the polarization vector \(\vec P(t)\), which is the dipole moment density (average dipole moment per unit volume of an ensemble of water molecules). The polarization \(\vec P(t)\) is parallel to the local applied alternating electric field (of the microwave radiation), \(\vec E(t)\), and oscillates in time with an amplitude that is proportional to the amplitude of the local alternating electric field, but with a phase lag \(\delta\).

The local alternating electric field at a given location inside the water is \(\vec E(t)=E_0\sin(\omega t)\hat x\), where \(\omega=2\pi f\), giving rise to polarization \(\vec P(t)=\beta\varepsilon_0E_0\sin(\omega t-\delta)\hat x\), where the dimensionless constant \(\beta\) is a property of water.

B.2 — 0.5pt

Find an expression for the time-averaged power \(\langle H(t)\rangle\) per unit volume absorbed by the water.

The time-average for a time dependent periodic variable \(f(t)\) over its period \(T\) is defined as:

\[ \langle f(t)\rangle=\frac1T\int_{t_0}^{t_0+T}f(t)\,\mathrm dt. \tag{1} \]

Let us now consider the propagation of the radiation through the water. The relative dielectric constant of water (at the electromagnetic field frequency) is \(\varepsilon_r\), and the corresponding index of refraction of water is \(n=\sqrt{\varepsilon_r}\). The momentary energy density of the electric field is given by \(\frac12\varepsilon_r\varepsilon_0E^2\). The time-averaged energy density of the electric and magnetic fields are equal.

B.3 — 1.1pt

Let us denote the time-averaged radiation energy flux density by \(I(z)\) (average radiation power flow per unit area). Here \(z\) is the depth of penetration into the water, and the radiation propagates in the \(z\) direction. Find an expression for the dependence of the flux density \(I(z)\) on \(z\). The flux density at the water surface, \(I(0)\), may appear in your result.

The phase lag \(\delta\) is the result of the interaction between the water molecules. It depends on the dimensionless dielectric loss coefficient \(\varepsilon_\ell\) and the relative dielectric constant \(\varepsilon_r\) (both of which depend on the radiation angular frequency \(\omega\) and the temperature) via the relation \(\tan\delta=\varepsilon_\ell/\varepsilon_r\). When \(\delta\) is small enough, the electric field at penetration depth \(z\) into the water is given by:

\[ \vec E(z,t)=\vec E_0e^{-\frac12nk_0z\tan\delta} \sin(nk_0z-\omega t) \tag{2} \]

where \(k_0=\omega/c\) and \(c=3.0\cdot10^8\,\mathrm{m/s}\) is the speed of light in vacuum.

B.4 — 0.6pt

Employ the approximation \(\tan\delta\approx\sin\delta\) and find an expression for the coefficient \(\beta\) defined in Task B.2 in terms of the other parameters.

Figure 5

Figure 5. The arrows indicate the variation with temperature across the curves from \(0^\circ\mathrm C\) to \(100^\circ\mathrm C\).

Figure 5 depicts \(\varepsilon_\ell\) (blue) and \(\varepsilon_r\) (red) for both pure water (solid lines) and a dilute solution of salt in water (dashed lines) as functions of wavelength or frequency, at several different temperatures. The angular frequency \(\omega=2\pi\cdot2.45\cdot10^9\,\mathrm{s^{-1}}\) is indicated by a bold vertical line. Below we will consider microwave radiation at this frequency only.

B.5 — 0.7pt

Use Figure 5 to address the following questions:

  1. For water at \(20^\circ\mathrm C\), find the penetration depth \(z_{1/2}\) at which the power per unit volume is reduced to half of its value at \(z=0\).
  2. Indicate in the Answer Sheet whether the penetration depth of the microwave radiation into water increases, decreases or remains the same with temperature.
  3. Indicate in the Answer Sheet whether the penetration depth of the microwave radiation into soup (dilute salt solution) increases, decreases or remains the same with temperature.

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • A.1: \(C\simeq0.93\,\mathrm{pF}\), \(L\simeq6.6\,\mathrm{nH}\), giving \[ \boxed{f_{\mathrm{est}}\simeq2.03\,\mathrm{GHz}.} \]

  • A.2: In both cases, \[ \boxed{\vec u_D=-\frac{E_0}{B_0}\hat x.} \] Put \(\omega_c=eB_0/m\), \(\ell=mE_0/(eB_0^2)\), and \(s=\omega_ct\). With the initial position at the origin, the requested trajectories are \[ \boxed{\frac{(x,y)_1}{\ell}=(-s+4\sin s,\;4[1-\cos s]),} \] \[ \boxed{\frac{(x,y)_2}{\ell}=(-s-2\sin s,\;-2[1-\cos s]),} \qquad 0<s<4\pi. \] They are looping trochoids drifting left, with counterclockwise gyration.

  • A.3: \[ \boxed{r_{\max}\simeq3.2\times10^{-4}\,\mathrm m=0.32\,\mathrm{mm}.} \]

  • A.4: My reading of the field-line tangents is A and B toward the cathode; C, D and E toward the anode; none exactly perpendicular to the radius. The diagram-reading uncertainty is noted below.

  • A.5: AB, AC and BC decrease; DE, DF and EF increase.

  • A.6: There are four spokes, separated by \(90^\circ\). Add copies of S rotated by \(90^\circ\), \(180^\circ\), and \(270^\circ\). They rotate counterclockwise, with \[ \boxed{\omega_s=\frac{2\pi f}{4}=3.85\times10^9\,\mathrm{rad\,s^{-1}}.} \]

  • A.7: \[ \boxed{V_0\simeq\frac{B_0\omega_s}{2}(b^2-a^2) =\frac{\pi fB_0}{4}(b^2-a^2).} \]

  • B.1: For field magnitude \(|E|\) and the angle between the dipole and the instantaneous field, \[ \boxed{\tau=p_0|E|\sin\theta,\qquad H_i=-p_0|E|\sin\theta\,\dot\theta.} \] The convention-independent power formula is \(H_i=\vec E\cdot\dot{\vec p}\).

  • B.2: \[ \boxed{\langle H\rangle=\frac12\beta\varepsilon_0\omega E_0^2\sin\delta.} \]

  • B.3: \[ \boxed{I(z)=I(0)\exp\!\left[-\frac{\beta\omega\sin\delta}{nc}\,z\right].} \]

  • B.4: \[ \boxed{\beta\simeq n^2=\varepsilon_r.} \]

  • B.5:
    1. \[ \boxed{z_{1/2}=\frac{c\sqrt{\varepsilon_r}\ln2}{\omega\varepsilon_\ell} \simeq1.2\,\mathrm{cm}} \] from approximate graph readings \(\varepsilon_r\simeq78\), \(\varepsilon_\ell\simeq10\).
    2. The penetration depth in pure water increases with temperature.
    3. The penetration depth in soup decreases with temperature.

Solution

A.1

The approximately parallel conducting faces forming the slot have area \(hl\) and separation \(d\). Neglecting fringing, their capacitance is

\[ C\simeq\frac{\varepsilon_0hl}{d}. \]

Using the dimensions in Figure 1,

\[ C=\frac{(8.85\times10^{-12})(17.5\times10^{-3})(6\times10^{-3})} {1\times10^{-3}} =9.29\times10^{-13}\,\mathrm F. \]

Let \(I\) be the total current circulating around the cylindrical cavity. Its uniform distribution over height \(h\) gives an effective surface current density \(I/h\). An ideal infinite solenoid with this surface current would produce \(\mu_0I/h\). Applying the specified correction,

\[ B\simeq0.6\frac{\mu_0 I}{h}. \]

Approximating the flux through the cavity by \(B\pi R^2\),

\[ L=\frac{\Phi}{I} \simeq0.6\frac{\mu_0\pi R^2}{h} =6.63\times10^{-9}\,\mathrm H. \]

Thus

\[ f_{\mathrm{est}}=\frac{1}{2\pi\sqrt{LC}} =\frac{1}{2\pi} \sqrt{\frac{d}{0.6\mu_0\varepsilon_0\pi R^2l}} \simeq2.03\times10^9\,\mathrm{Hz}. \]

The height cancels because \(C\propto h\) and \(L\propto h^{-1}\). The estimate is approximate because the resonator is represented by idealized lumped capacitance and inductance.

A.2

The electron obeys the Lorentz-force equation,

\[ m\frac{\mathrm d\vec u}{\mathrm dt} =-e(\vec E+\vec u\times\vec B). \]

For the stated fields, its components are

\[ \dot u_x=-\omega_cu_y,\qquad \dot u_y=\omega_c\left(u_x+\frac{E_0}{B_0}\right), \qquad \omega_c=\frac{eB_0}{m}. \]

Define \(v_D=E_0/B_0\). A constant velocity \(-v_D\hat x\) makes the electric and magnetic forces cancel. More generally,

\[ \vec u_D=\frac{\vec E\times\vec B}{B_0^2} =-v_D\hat x. \]

In the frame translating with this velocity, the remaining velocity rotates uniformly. For \(u_y(0)=0\),

\[ u_x=-v_D+A\cos(\omega_ct),\qquad u_y=A\sin(\omega_ct), \]

where \(A=u_x(0)+v_D\). The oscillatory terms average to zero, so both initial conditions give the same drift.

Taking \(x(0)=y(0)=0\), integration gives

\[ x=-v_Dt+\frac{A}{\omega_c}\sin(\omega_ct), \qquad y=\frac{A}{\omega_c}[1-\cos(\omega_ct)]. \]

For case 1, \(A=4v_D\); for case 2, \(A=-2v_D\). This gives the parametric trajectories stated in the answers.

For a precise sketch, use \(\ell=v_D/\omega_c\). The following points describe the first cyclotron period:

\(s=\omega_ct\) Case 1: \((x/\ell,y/\ell)\) Case 2: \((x/\ell,y/\ell)\)
\(0\) \((0,0)\) \((0,0)\)
\(\pi/2\) \((4-\pi/2,4)\) \((-2-\pi/2,-2)\)
\(\pi\) \((-\pi,8)\) \((-\pi,-4)\)
\(3\pi/2\) \((-4-3\pi/2,4)\) \((2-3\pi/2,-2)\)
\(2\pi\) \((-2\pi,0)\) \((-2\pi,0)\)

Repeat this curve translated by \(-2\pi\ell\) in \(x\) to obtain the second period.

In case 1, the electron initially moves right and bends upward; the entire curve lies in \(0\le y\le8\ell\). In case 2, it initially moves left and bends downward; the curve lies in \(-4\ell\le y\le0\). Both end at \((-4\pi\ell,0)\) after the specified interval. Their gyration is counterclockwise, and neither trajectory has cusps because its velocity never vanishes.

A.3

In the approximately inertial local drift frame, the electric force is approximately cancelled by the magnetic force associated with the frame velocity. The remaining motion is approximately circular:

\[ \frac{mv_\perp^2}{r}=ev_\perp B_0, \qquad r=\frac{mv_\perp}{eB_0}. \]

Using the full kinetic-energy bound as an upper estimate for the gyration energy,

\[ v_\perp\lesssim\sqrt{\frac{2K_{\max}}m}. \]

Here

\[ K_{\max}=800(1.6\times10^{-19}) =1.28\times10^{-16}\,\mathrm J, \]

so

\[ v_{\max}\simeq1.68\times10^7\,\mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}, \]

and

\[ r_{\max}\simeq \frac{\sqrt{2mK_{\max}}}{eB_0} = \frac{\sqrt{2(9.1\times10^{-31})(1.28\times10^{-16})}} {(1.6\times10^{-19})(0.3)} =3.18\times10^{-4}\,\mathrm m. \]

Thus \(r_{\max}\simeq0.32\,\mathrm{mm}\), much smaller than the \(15\,\mathrm{mm}\) gap. This supports treating the gyration as a small motion superposed on the drift of its centre.

A.4

Let \(\hat r\) point radially outward and \(\hat\phi\) counterclockwise. With the magnetic field pointing out of the page,

\[ \vec E=E_r\hat r+E_\phi\hat\phi \]

gives

\[ \vec u_D=\frac{\vec E\times\vec B}{B_0^2} =\frac{E_\phi}{B_0}\hat r-\frac{E_r}{B_0}\hat\phi. \]

Therefore:

  • \(E_\phi>0\) produces drift toward the anode.
  • \(E_\phi<0\) produces drift toward the cathode.
  • \(E_\phi=0\) produces drift perpendicular to the radius.

The static electric field is radial, so it contributes only azimuthal drift. The radial classification is determined entirely by the tangential component of the plotted alternating field.

My reading of the local tangents gives:

Electron Tangential alternating-field component Radial drift
A Clockwise Toward cathode
B Clockwise Toward cathode
C Counterclockwise Toward anode
D Counterclockwise Toward anode
E Counterclockwise Toward anode

These classifications concern the radial component; the electrons also have azimuthal drift. The tangents are read from a schematic figure, so these classifications carry some reading uncertainty.

A.5

At a common distance \(\rho\) from the cathode centre,

\[ \dot\phi=\frac{u_\phi}{\rho} =-\frac{E_r}{B_0\rho}. \]

The static field is radially inward and gives all six electrons the same counterclockwise angular velocity at that radius. Thus only differences in the radial component of the alternating field affect their instantaneous angular separations.

For A, B and C, Figure 3 shows the radial alternating-field component changing from outward at A, through approximately zero at B, to inward at C. Consequently,

\[ \dot\phi_A<\dot\phi_B<\dot\phi_C. \]

Their positions are ordered \(\phi_A>\phi_B>\phi_C\). The electron behind therefore moves faster than the one ahead, so all three separations decrease:

\[ \frac{\mathrm d}{\mathrm dt}(\phi_A-\phi_B)<0,\quad \frac{\mathrm d}{\mathrm dt}(\phi_A-\phi_C)<0,\quad \frac{\mathrm d}{\mathrm dt}(\phi_B-\phi_C)<0. \]

For D, E and F, the radial alternating-field component changes in the opposite way: inward at D, approximately zero at E, and outward at F. Hence

\[ \dot\phi_D>\dot\phi_E>\dot\phi_F. \]

Since \(\phi_D>\phi_E>\phi_F\), all three separations increase.

Pair Change of angular separation
AB Decreases
AC Decreases
BC Decreases
DE Increases
DF Increases
EF Increases

A.6

Adjacent resonators have opposite oscillation phases. Thus, at a given instant, alternate angular regions focus electrons while the intervening regions spread them apart. Eight resonators therefore produce four spokes.

The drawing should contain three additional copies of S, obtained by rotations of \(90^\circ\), \(180^\circ\), and \(270^\circ\) about the cathode centre. Their shapes should have the same sense of curvature.

The static field points inward. Its drift is

\[ (-\hat r)\times\hat z=+\hat\phi, \]

so the spokes rotate counterclockwise.

After half an oscillation period, the resonator polarities reverse. A spoke must advance to the next resonator position, an angle \(2\pi/8=\pi/4\). Therefore

\[ \omega_s=\frac{\pi/4}{T/2} =\frac{\pi}{2T} =\frac{2\pi f}{4}. \]

Using \(f=2.45\times10^9\,\mathrm{Hz}\),

\[ \boxed{\omega_s=3.85\times10^9\,\mathrm{rad\,s^{-1}}.} \]

Equivalently, the spokes make \(6.125\times10^8\) revolutions per second.

A.7

Under the prescribed approximation, the field magnitude at the midpoint of the gap is

\[ E_{\mathrm{mid}}\simeq\frac{V_0}{b-a}. \]

The midpoint radius is

\[ \rho_{\mathrm{mid}}=\frac{a+b}{2}. \]

The electron drift there must have the tangential speed of the spoke:

\[ \frac{E_{\mathrm{mid}}}{B_0} \simeq\omega_s\rho_{\mathrm{mid}}. \]

Consequently,

\[ \frac{V_0}{B_0(b-a)} \simeq\omega_s\frac{a+b}{2}, \]

which yields

\[ \boxed{ V_0\simeq\frac{B_0\omega_s}{2}(b^2-a^2) =\frac{\pi fB_0}{4}(b^2-a^2). } \]

With the given \(B_0\) and \(f\), this can also be written

\[ V_0\simeq (5.77\times10^8\,\mathrm{V\,m^{-2}})(b^2-a^2), \]

with \(a\) and \(b\) measured in metres.

B.1

The forces on the two charges form a couple. The torque is

\[ \vec\tau=\vec p\times\vec E. \]

Thus, for \(\theta\) defined as the angle between the dipole and the instantaneous field,

\[ \boxed{\tau=p_0|E|\sin\theta.} \]

The torque tends to reduce this angle. Its signed component conjugate to \(\theta\) is therefore \(-p_0|E|\sin\theta\), giving the mechanical power

\[ \boxed{H_i=-p_0|E|\sin\theta\,\dot\theta.} \]

In particular, an aligning dipole has \(\dot\theta<0\), so the field delivers positive power.

The result can be derived without an angular convention. If \(\vec r_+\) and \(\vec r_-\) are the charge positions,

\[ H_i=q\vec E\cdot\dot{\vec r}_+ -q\vec E\cdot\dot{\vec r}_- =\vec E\cdot\frac{\mathrm d}{\mathrm dt} \big[q(\vec r_+-\vec r_-)\big]. \]

Hence

\[ \boxed{H_i=\vec E\cdot\dot{\vec p}.} \]

If instead \(\theta\) is measured from the fixed positive \(x\) axis and \(E(t)\) is a signed component, this becomes

\[ H_i=E(t)\frac{\mathrm d}{\mathrm dt}(p_0\cos\theta) =-p_0E(t)\sin\theta\,\dot\theta. \]

There is no \(\dot E\) term in the mechanical power delivered to the dipole.

B.2

Summing the single-dipole power over unit volume gives

\[ H(t)=\vec E(t)\cdot\frac{\mathrm d\vec P}{\mathrm dt}. \]

The given polarization has derivative

\[ \frac{\mathrm d\vec P}{\mathrm dt} =\beta\varepsilon_0E_0\omega \cos(\omega t-\delta)\hat x. \]

Therefore

\[ H(t)=\beta\varepsilon_0\omega E_0^2 \sin(\omega t)\cos(\omega t-\delta). \]

Using

\[ \cos(\omega t-\delta) =\cos(\omega t)\cos\delta+\sin(\omega t)\sin\delta, \]

and the period averages

\[ \langle\sin(\omega t)\cos(\omega t)\rangle=0, \qquad \langle\sin^2(\omega t)\rangle=\frac12, \]

we obtain

\[ \boxed{\langle H\rangle =\frac12\beta\varepsilon_0\omega E_0^2\sin\delta.} \]

For a positive phase lag, the mean absorbed power is positive.

B.3

Let \(\mathcal E(z)\) denote the local electric-field amplitude. The average electric energy density is

\[ \langle u_E\rangle =\frac12\varepsilon_r\varepsilon_0\langle E^2\rangle =\frac14\varepsilon_r\varepsilon_0\mathcal E^2. \]

The average magnetic energy density is equal to this, so

\[ \langle u\rangle =\frac12\varepsilon_r\varepsilon_0\mathcal E^2. \]

Using the propagation speed \(c/n\) in the problem's dielectric-wave model,

\[ I(z)=\frac cn\langle u\rangle =\frac12nc\varepsilon_0\mathcal E^2(z), \]

where \(n^2=\varepsilon_r\).

Conservation of energy for a thin layer of thickness \(\mathrm dz\) gives

\[ -\frac{\mathrm dI}{\mathrm dz}=\langle H\rangle. \]

Substituting the result of B.2 and eliminating \(\mathcal E^2\),

\[ -\frac{\mathrm dI}{\mathrm dz} =\frac12\beta\varepsilon_0\omega\mathcal E^2\sin\delta =\frac{\beta\omega\sin\delta}{nc}I. \]

For a homogeneous medium at fixed temperature, the coefficient is constant. Integration gives

\[ \boxed{ I(z)=I(0)\exp\!\left[-\frac{\beta\omega\sin\delta}{nc}z\right]. } \]

The attenuation coefficient for power is therefore

\[ \alpha=\frac{\beta\omega\sin\delta}{nc}. \]

B.4

Equation (2) gives an electric-field amplitude proportional to

\[ e^{-\frac12nk_0z\tan\delta}. \]

Since intensity is proportional to the square of this amplitude,

\[ I(z)=I(0)e^{-nk_0z\tan\delta}. \]

Comparison with B.3, using \(k_0=\omega/c\), gives

\[ \frac{\beta\omega\sin\delta}{nc} =\frac{n\omega}{c}\tan\delta. \]

Thus

\[ \beta\sin\delta=n^2\tan\delta. \]

Within the requested approximation \(\tan\delta\simeq\sin\delta\),

\[ \boxed{\beta\simeq n^2=\varepsilon_r.} \]

This result follows within the dielectric and small-loss approximations specified in the problem.

B.5

Using the supplied relation \(\tan\delta=\varepsilon_\ell/\varepsilon_r\), the power attenuation coefficient is

\[ \alpha=nk_0\tan\delta =\frac{\omega}{c} \frac{\varepsilon_\ell}{\sqrt{\varepsilon_r}}. \]

At uniform temperature, the local absorbed power per unit volume is proportional to the local intensity:

\[ \langle H(z)\rangle=\alpha I(z). \]

It therefore has the same exponential dependence,

\[ \frac{\langle H(z)\rangle}{\langle H(0)\rangle} =e^{-\alpha z}. \]

1. Half-power depth at \(20^\circ\mathrm C\).

The condition \(e^{-\alpha z_{1/2}}=1/2\) gives

\[ z_{1/2}=\frac{\ln2}{\alpha} =\frac{c\sqrt{\varepsilon_r}\ln2}{\omega\varepsilon_\ell}. \]

At the marked frequency, the solid curves for \(20^\circ\mathrm C\) give approximately

\[ \varepsilon_r\simeq78,\qquad \varepsilon_\ell\simeq10. \]

Consequently,

\[ z_{1/2}\simeq \frac{(3.0\times10^8)\sqrt{78}\ln2} {(2\pi)(2.45\times10^9)(10)} =1.19\times10^{-2}\,\mathrm m. \]

Thus the graph supports a half-power depth of approximately

\[ \boxed{z_{1/2}\simeq1.2\,\mathrm{cm}.} \]

This is the half-power depth; the field-amplitude decay has an exponent smaller by a factor of two.

2. Pure water as temperature increases.

At fixed frequency,

\[ z_{1/2}\propto\frac{\sqrt{\varepsilon_r}}{\varepsilon_\ell}. \]

The solid blue curves show a substantial decrease of \(\varepsilon_\ell\) with temperature. The decrease of \(\sqrt{\varepsilon_r}\) is much smaller in relative terms. Therefore the ratio increases:

\[ \boxed{\text{The penetration depth in pure water increases with temperature.}} \]

3. Soup as temperature increases.

At the same frequency, the dashed blue curves show increasing dielectric loss with increasing temperature, while the dashed red curves show decreasing \(\varepsilon_r\). Both changes reduce \(\sqrt{\varepsilon_r}/\varepsilon_\ell\). Therefore

\[ \boxed{\text{The penetration depth in soup decreases with temperature.}} \]

The solution was checked against the official solution.