IPhO 2002 · Theory problem 2

Sensing Electrical Signals

Some seawater animals have the ability to detect other creatures at some distance away due to electric currents produced by the creatures during the breathing processes or other processes involving muscular contraction. Some predators use this electrical signal to locate their preys, even when buried under the sands.

The physical mechanism underlying the current generation at the prey and its detection by the predator can be modeled as described by Figure II-1. The current generated by the prey flows between two spheres with positive and negative potential in the prey’s body. The distance between the centers of the two spheres is \(l_s\), each having a radius of \(r_s\), which is much smaller than \(l_s\). The seawater resistivity is \(\rho\). Assume that the resistivity of the prey’s body is the same as that of the surrounding seawater, implying that the boundary surrounding the prey in the figure can be ignored.

Figure 1

Figure II-1. A model describing the detection of electric power coming from a prey by its predator.

In order to describe the detection of electric power by the predator coming from the prey, the detector is modeled similarly by two spheres on the predator’s body and in contact with the surrounding seawater, lying parallel to the pair in the prey’s body. They are separated by a distance of \(l_d\), each having a radius of \(r_d\) which is much smaller than \(l_d\). In this case, the center of the detector is located at a distance \(y\) right above the source and the line connecting the two spheres is parallel to the electric field as shown in Figure II-1. Both \(l_s\) and \(l_d\) are also much smaller than \(y\). The electric field strength along the line connecting the two spheres is assumed to be constant. Therefore the detector forms a closed circuit system connecting the prey, the surrounding seawater and the predator as described in Figure II-2.

Figure 2

Figure II-2. The equivalent closed circuit system involving the sensing predator, the prey and the surrounding seawater.

In the figure, \(V\) is the voltage difference between the detector’s spheres due to the electric field induced by the prey, \(R_m\) is the inner resistance due to the surrounding sea water. Further, \(V_d\) and \(R_d\) are respectively the voltage difference between the detecting spheres and the resistance of the detecting element within the predator.

Questions:

  1. Determine the current density vector \(\vec{j}\) (current per unit area) caused by a point current source \(I_s\) at a distance \(r\) in an infinite medium. [1.5 pts]

  2. Based on the law \(\vec{E}=\rho\vec{j}\), determine the electric field strength \(\vec{E}_p\) at the middle of the detecting spheres (at point P) for a given current \(I_s\) that flows between two spheres in the prey’s body [2.0 pts].

  3. Determine for the same current \(I_s\), the voltage difference between the source spheres (\(V_s\)) in the prey [1.5 pts]. Determine the resistance between the two source spheres (\(R_s\)) [0.5 pts] and the power produced by the source (\(P_s\)) [0.5 pts].

  4. Determine \(R_m\) [0.5 pts], \(V_d\) [1.0 pts] in Figure II-2 and calculate also the power transferred from the source to the detector (\(P_d\)) [0.5 pts].

  5. Determine the optimum value of \(R_d\) leading to maximum detected power [1.5 pts] and determine also the maximum power [0.5 pts].

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

Let \(\hat{\mathbf x}\) point from the prey’s negative sphere toward its positive sphere. Voltages below are positive magnitudes. Results retain the leading terms under the stated assumptions \[ r_s\ll l_s,\qquad r_d\ll l_d,\qquad l_s,l_d\ll y. \] The problem supplies no numerical parameter values, so the answers are symbolic.

  1. With \(\hat{\mathbf r}\) directed away from the point source, \[ \boxed{\vec j(r)=\frac{I_s}{4\pi r^2}\hat{\mathbf r}}. \]

  2. The field points from the positive-source side toward the negative-source side: \[ \boxed{\vec E_p\simeq-\frac{\rho I_s l_s}{4\pi y^3}\hat{\mathbf x}}. \]

  3. The source voltage, resistance, and power are \[ \boxed{V_s\simeq\frac{\rho I_s}{2\pi r_s}},\qquad \boxed{R_s\simeq\frac{\rho}{2\pi r_s}},\qquad \boxed{P_s\simeq\frac{\rho I_s^2}{2\pi r_s}}. \]

  4. The seawater resistance and open-circuit detector voltage are \[ \boxed{R_m\simeq\frac{\rho}{2\pi r_d}},\qquad V\simeq\frac{\rho I_s l_s l_d}{4\pi y^3}. \] Consequently, \[ \boxed{V_d=\frac{R_d}{R_m+R_d}\,V},\qquad \boxed{P_d=\frac{V^2R_d}{(R_m+R_d)^2}}. \]

  5. Maximum detected power occurs at \[ \boxed{R_{d,\mathrm{opt}}=R_m\simeq\frac{\rho}{2\pi r_d}}. \] Its value is \[ \boxed{ P_{d,\max}=\frac{V^2}{4R_m} \simeq\frac{\rho I_s^2l_s^2l_d^2r_d}{32\pi y^6} \simeq P_s\frac{r_sr_dl_s^2l_d^2}{16y^6} }. \]

Solution

1. Current density of a point current source

In a homogeneous, isotropic, infinite medium, spherical symmetry requires the current density to be radial and to have the same magnitude everywhere on a sphere centered on the source.

Conservation of current gives \[ I_s=\oint \vec j\cdot d\vec A=4\pi r^2j(r). \] Therefore, \[ \boxed{\vec j(r)=\frac{I_s}{4\pi r^2}\hat{\mathbf r}}. \] For a positive source the current is outward; a sink carrying the same current has the opposite sign. The current density has SI units \(\mathrm{A\,m^{-2}}\).

2. Electric field at P

Place the midpoint of the prey’s two spheres at the origin. The positive sphere is at \(x=l_s/2\), the negative sphere at \(x=-l_s/2\), and P is at \((0,y)\).

Since the spheres are small compared with their separation and their distance from P, replace them by a point source \(+I_s\) and a point sink \(-I_s\). Their common distance from P is \[ R=\sqrt{y^2+\frac{l_s^2}{4}}. \]

By superposition, \[ \begin{aligned} \vec j(P) &=\frac{I_s}{4\pi R^3} \left[ \left(-\frac{l_s}{2}\hat{\mathbf x}+y\hat{\mathbf y}\right) -\left(\frac{l_s}{2}\hat{\mathbf x}+y\hat{\mathbf y}\right) \right]\\ &=-\frac{I_s l_s}{4\pi R^3}\hat{\mathbf x}. \end{aligned} \] The vertical components cancel, while the horizontal components add.

Using the local form of Ohm’s law, \(\vec E=\rho\vec j\), \[ \vec E_p =-\frac{\rho I_s l_s} {4\pi\left(y^2+l_s^2/4\right)^{3/2}}\hat{\mathbf x}. \] This expression is exact within the point-source approximation. With \(l_s\ll y\), \[ \boxed{\vec E_p\simeq-\frac{\rho I_s l_s}{4\pi y^3}\hat{\mathbf x}}. \]

Thus P lies on the equatorial line of a current dipole, whose field decreases as \(y^{-3}\).

3. Source voltage, resistance, and power

For a single point source, the radial electric field is \[ E_r(r)=\frac{\rho I_s}{4\pi r^2}. \] Taking the potential at infinity as zero, \[ \phi(r)=\int_r^\infty E_r(r')\,dr' =\frac{\rho I_s}{4\pi r}. \] A sink of current \(I_s\) produces the negative of this potential.

At either source sphere, its own contribution to the surface potential has magnitude \[ \frac{\rho I_s}{4\pi r_s}. \] The contribution from the other sphere is of order \(\rho I_s/(4\pi l_s)\), smaller by \(r_s/l_s\), and is neglected at leading order. Hence \[ \phi_+\simeq\frac{\rho I_s}{4\pi r_s}, \qquad \phi_-\simeq-\frac{\rho I_s}{4\pi r_s}. \]

The voltage difference is therefore \[ \boxed{V_s=\phi_+-\phi_-\simeq\frac{\rho I_s}{2\pi r_s}}. \]

For completeness, retaining the mutual potential of the two monopoles would give \[ V_s\simeq\frac{\rho I_s}{2\pi} \left(\frac1{r_s}-\frac1{l_s}\right), \] whose second term is negligible under the stated assumption.

The resistance seen between the source spheres follows from Ohm’s law: \[ \boxed{R_s=\frac{V_s}{I_s}\simeq\frac{\rho}{2\pi r_s}}. \]

The electrical power supplied by the prey is \[ \boxed{P_s=I_sV_s=I_s^2R_s \simeq\frac{\rho I_s^2}{2\pi r_s}}. \]

4. Seawater resistance, detector voltage, and detected power

A current through the detector enters the surrounding water at one detector sphere and leaves it at the other. The resistance of this path is obtained by applying part 3 to spheres of radius \(r_d\), separated by \(l_d\). Since \(r_d\ll l_d\), \[ \boxed{R_m\simeq\frac{\rho}{2\pi r_d}}. \] Physically, each small spherical contact contributes a spreading resistance \(\rho/(4\pi r_d)\).

The prey’s electric field is approximately uniform along the detector because \(l_d\ll y\). The right detector sphere is at higher potential, so the open-circuit voltage is \[ \begin{aligned} V &=\phi_{\mathrm{right}}-\phi_{\mathrm{left}} =-\int_{\mathrm{left}}^{\mathrm{right}}\vec E_p\cdot d\vec l\\ &\simeq |\vec E_p|\,l_d =\frac{\rho I_s l_s l_d}{4\pi y^3}. \end{aligned} \]

In the equivalent circuit of Figure II-2, Kirchhoff’s voltage law gives \[ I_d=\frac{V}{R_m+R_d}. \] Therefore, \[ \boxed{ V_d=I_dR_d =\frac{R_d}{R_m+R_d}V \simeq \frac{\rho I_s l_s l_d}{4\pi y^3} \frac{R_d}{R_d+\rho/(2\pi r_d)} }. \]

The power dissipated in the detecting element is \[ \boxed{ P_d=I_d^2R_d=\frac{V_d^2}{R_d} =\frac{V^2R_d}{(R_m+R_d)^2} }. \] In terms of the given parameters, \[ \boxed{ P_d\simeq \frac{\rho^2I_s^2l_s^2l_d^2}{16\pi^2y^6} \frac{R_d}{\left[R_d+\rho/(2\pi r_d)\right]^2} }. \]

5. Optimum detector resistance and maximum power

For the given source current and geometry, \(V\) and \(R_m\) are fixed. Differentiating the detected power with respect to \(R_d\), \[ \frac{dP_d}{dR_d} =V^2\frac{R_m-R_d}{(R_m+R_d)^3}. \] The derivative is positive for \(R_d<R_m\) and negative for \(R_d>R_m\). Thus the maximum occurs when \[ \boxed{R_{d,\mathrm{opt}}=R_m\simeq\frac{\rho}{2\pi r_d}}. \] This is the maximum-power-transfer condition.

At this resistance, \(V_d=V/2\), giving \[ P_{d,\max}=\frac{V^2}{4R_m}. \] Substitution yields \[ \begin{aligned} P_{d,\max} &\simeq \left(\frac{\rho I_s l_s l_d}{4\pi y^3}\right)^2 \frac{2\pi r_d}{4\rho}\\ &=\boxed{\frac{\rho I_s^2l_s^2l_d^2r_d}{32\pi y^6}}. \end{aligned} \]

Using the source power from part 3, this can also be written as \[ \boxed{ \frac{P_{d,\max}}{P_s} \simeq\frac{r_sr_dl_s^2l_d^2}{16y^6} }. \] The \(y^{-6}\) dependence results from squaring the dipole field, which decreases as \(y^{-3}\).

The solution was checked against the official solution.