IPhO 1998 · Theory problem 2

Water under an ice cap

An ice cap is a thick sheet of ice (up to a few km in thickness) resting on the ground below and extending horizontally over tens or hundreds of km. In this problem we consider the melting of ice and the behavior of water under a temperate ice cap, i.e. an ice cap at the melting point. We may assume that under such conditions the ice causes pressure variations as a viscous fluid, but deforms in a brittle fashion, principally by vertical movement. For the purposes of this problem the following information is given.

Density of water: \(\rho_w=1.000\cdot10^3\ \mathrm{kg/m^3}\)
Density of ice: \(\rho_i=0.917\cdot10^3\ \mathrm{kg/m^3}\)
Specific heat of ice: \(c_i=2.1\cdot10^3\ \mathrm{J/(kg\,^\circ C)}\)
Specific latent heat of ice: \(L_i=3.4\cdot10^5\ \mathrm{J/kg}\)
Density of rock and magma: \(\rho_r=2.9\cdot10^3\ \mathrm{kg/m^3}\)
Specific heat of rock and magma: \(c_r=700\ \mathrm{J/(kg\,^\circ C)}\)
Specific latent heat of rock and magma: \(L_r=4.2\cdot10^5\ \mathrm{J/kg}\)
Average outward heat flow through the surface of the earth: \(J_Q=0.06\ \mathrm{W/m^2}\)
Melting point of ice: \(T_0=0^\circ\mathrm C\), constant

a) (0.5 points) Consider a thick ice cap at a location of average heat flow from the interior of the earth. Using the data from the table, calculate the thickness \(d\) of the ice layer melted every year and write your answer in the designated box on the answer sheet.

b) (3.5 points) Consider now the upper surface of an ice cap. The ground below the ice cap has a slope angle \(\alpha\). The upper surface of the cap slopes by an angle \(\beta\) as shown in Figure 2.1. The vertical thickness of the ice at \(x=0\) is \(h_0\). Hence the lower and upper surfaces of the ice cap can be described by the equations

\[ y_1=x\tan\alpha,\qquad y_2=h_0+x\tan\beta \tag{2.1} \]

Derive an expression for the pressure \(p\) at the bottom of the ice cap as a function of the horizontal coordinate \(x\) and write it on the answer sheet.

Formulate mathematically a condition between \(\beta\) and \(\alpha\), so that water in a layer between the ice cap and the ground will flow in neither direction. Show that the condition is of the form \(\tan\beta=s\tan\alpha\). Find the coefficient \(s\) and write the result in a symbolic form on the answer sheet.

The line \(y_1=0.8\,x\) in Figure 2.2 shows the surface of the earth below an ice cap. The vertical thickness \(h_0\) at \(x=0\) is 2 km. Assume that water at the bottom is in equilibrium. On a graph answer sheet draw the line \(y_1\) and add a line \(y_2\) showing the upper surface of the ice. Indicate on the figure which line is which.

\(^{6}\)Authors: Gudni Axelsson and Thorsteinn Vilhjálmsson

Figure 1

Figure 2.1: Cross section of an ice cap with a plane surface resting on an inclined plane ground. \(S\): surface, \(G\): ground, \(I\): ice cap.

c) (1 point) Within a large ice sheet on horizontal ground and originally of constant thickness \(D=2.0\) km, a conical body of water of height \(H=1.0\) km and radius \(r=1.0\) km is formed rather suddenly by melting of the ice (Figure 2.3). We assume that the remaining ice adapts to this by vertical motion only.

Show analytically on a blank answer sheet and pictorially on a graph answer sheet, the shape of the surface of the ice cap after the water cone has formed and hydrostatic equilibrium has been reached.

d) (5 points) In its annual expedition, an international group of scientists explores a temperate ice cap in Antarctica. The area is normally a wide plateau but this time they find a deep crater-like depression, formed like a top-down cone with a depth \(h\) of 100 m and a radius \(r\) of 500 m (Figure 2.4). The thickness of the ice in the area is 2000 m.

After a discussion the scientists conclude that most probably there was a minor volcanic eruption below the ice cap. A small amount of magma (molten rock) intruded at the bottom of the ice cap, solidified and cooled, melting a certain volume of ice. The scientists try as follows to estimate the volume of the intrusion and get an idea of what became of the melt water.

Assume that the ice only moved vertically. Also assume that the magma was completely molten and at \(1200^\circ\mathrm C\) at the start. For simplicity, assume further that the intrusion had the form of a cone with a circular base vertically below the conical depression in the surface. The time for the rising of the magma was short relative to the time for the exchange of heat in the process. The heat flow is assumed to have been primarily vertical such that the volume melted from the ice at any time is bounded by a conical surface centered above the center of the magma intrusion.

Given these assumptions the melting of the ice takes place in two steps. At first the water is not in pressure equilibrium at the surface of the magma and hence flows away. The water flowing away can be assumed to have a temperature of \(0^\circ\mathrm C\). Subsequently,

Figure 2

Figure 2.2: Cross section of a temperate ice cap resting on an inclined ground with water at the bottom in equilibrium. \(G\): ground, \(I\): ice cap.

hydrostatic equilibrium is reached and the water accumulates above the intrusion instead of flowing away.

When thermal equilibrium has been reached, you are asked to determine the following quantities. Write the answers on the answer sheet.

  1. The height \(H\) of the top of the water cone formed under the ice cap, relative to the original bottom of the ice cap.
  2. The height \(h_1\) of the intrusion.
  3. The total mass \(m_{tot}\) of the water produced and the mass \(m'\) of water that flows away.

Plot on a graph answer sheet, to scale, the shapes of the rock intrusion and of the body of water remaining. Use the coordinate system suggested in Figure 2.4.

Figure 3

Figure 2.3: A vertical section through the mid-plane of a water cone inside an ice cap. \(S\): surface, \(W\): water, \(G\): ground, \(I\): ice cap.

Figure 4

Figure 2.4: A vertical and central cross section of a conical depression in a temperate ice cap. \(S\): surface, \(G\): ground, \(I\): ice cap, \(M\): rock/magma intrusion, \(W\): water. Note that the figure is NOT drawn to scale.

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • a) The thickness melted each year is \[ \boxed{d\simeq6.1\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm m=6.1\ \mathrm{mm}.} \]

  • b) With uniform atmospheric pressure \(p_a\), \[ \boxed{p(x)-p_a=\rho_i g\left[h_0+x(\tan\beta-\tan\alpha)\right].} \] No flow requires \[ \boxed{\tan\beta=s\tan\alpha,\qquad s=\frac{\rho_i-\rho_w}{\rho_i}\simeq-0.09051.} \] For the requested graph, with both coordinates in kilometres, \[ \boxed{y_1=0.8x,\qquad y_2=2.000-0.07241x.} \] The lines intersect at approximately \((2.293,\ 1.834)\) km.

  • c) Let \(R\) be horizontal distance from the cone axis. The surface is \[ \boxed{ y_s(R)= \begin{cases} D-\dfrac{\rho_w-\rho_i}{\rho_i}H\left(1-\dfrac Rr\right), &0\le R\le r,\\[6pt] D,&R\ge r. \end{cases}} \] It is a conical depression of radius \(1.0\) km and depth approximately \(91\) m. Its central elevation is \(1.9095\) km above the bed.

  • d), 1. \[ \boxed{H=\frac{\rho_i h}{\rho_w-\rho_i} \simeq1.10\times10^3\ \mathrm m.} \]

  • d), 2. \[ \boxed{h_1\simeq103\ \mathrm m.} \] The intrusion volume is approximately \(2.7\times10^7\ \mathrm{m^3}\).

  • d), 3. \[ \boxed{m_{tot}\simeq2.9\times10^{11}\ \mathrm{kg},\qquad m'\simeq2.7\times10^{10}\ \mathrm{kg}.} \] About \(9.3\%\) of the meltwater escapes. For the plot, define \(f(x)=1-|x|/(500\ \mathrm m)\) for \(|x|\le500\ \mathrm m\). The rock surface and water–ice boundary are \[ \boxed{y_M=(102.8\ \mathrm m)f(x),\qquad y_W=(1104.8\ \mathrm m)f(x).} \] Water occupies the region between these two surfaces.

Solution

a) Annual melting

The ice is already at its melting point, so the supplied geothermal heat goes into latent heat. For a horizontal area \(A\), conservation of energy over one year gives

\[ J_QAt=\rho_i AdL_i. \]

Thus

\[ d=\frac{J_Qt}{\rho_iL_i}. \]

Taking one year as \(365\times24\times3600=3.1536\times10^7\) s,

\[ d= \frac{0.06(3.1536\times10^7)} {(917)(3.4\times10^5)} =6.069\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm m. \]

Therefore approximately \(6.1\) mm of ice melts each year. The specific heat of ice is unnecessary because no initial warming is required.

b) Pressure and the condition for no water flow

The vertical ice thickness is

\[ h_i(x)=y_2-y_1 =h_0+x(\tan\beta-\tan\alpha). \]

Using the stated model, the basal pressure equals atmospheric pressure plus the weight of the overlying ice per unit horizontal area:

\[ \boxed{p(x)=p_a+\rho_i g \left[h_0+x(\tan\beta-\tan\alpha)\right].} \]

If pressure is measured relative to the atmosphere, the \(p_a\) term is omitted.

For water at rest, hydrostatic equilibrium requires

\[ p+\rho_wgy=\text{constant}. \]

Along the thin water layer, \(y=y_1(x)\), so the no-flow condition is

\[ \frac{dp}{dx}+\rho_wg\frac{dy_1}{dx}=0. \]

Substituting the pressure and ground slope,

\[ \rho_i g(\tan\beta-\tan\alpha) +\rho_wg\tan\alpha=0. \]

Consequently,

\[ \boxed{\tan\beta =\frac{\rho_i-\rho_w}{\rho_i}\tan\alpha}, \qquad \boxed{s=\frac{\rho_i-\rho_w}{\rho_i}}. \]

Numerically,

\[ s=\frac{917-1000}{917}=-0.0905125. \]

The negative sign means that the ice surface must slope downward in the direction in which the ground rises.

For \(y_1=0.8x\) and \(h_0=2\) km,

\[ \tan\beta=(-0.0905125)(0.8)=-0.0724100, \]

giving, with \(x\) and \(y\) in kilometres,

\[ \boxed{y_1=0.8x,\qquad y_2=2.000-0.0724100x.} \]

Draw the ground as a straight rising line through the origin and the ice surface as a gently descending line through \((0,2)\). Useful plotting coordinates are:

\(x\) (km) Ground \(y_1\) (km) Ice surface \(y_2\) (km)
0 0 2.000
1.000 0.800 1.928
2.000 1.600 1.855
2.2925 1.834 1.834

For \(x\ge0\), the ice lies between these lines up to their intersection.

c) Surface above a conical water body

Let \(z(R)\) denote the elevation of the ice–water boundary above the horizontal bed:

\[ z(R)=H\left(1-\frac Rr\right), \qquad 0\le R\le r. \]

At the rim, the water thickness tends to zero and the ice retains its original thickness \(D\). Hence the water pressure at bed level is

\[ p_b=p_a+\rho_i gD. \]

Hydrostatic equilibrium gives the pressure at elevation \(z\):

\[ p_w(z)=p_a+\rho_i gD-\rho_wgz. \]

The ice column above that point has thickness \(y_s-z\), and therefore exerts pressure

\[ p_i=p_a+\rho_i g(y_s-z). \]

Equating the pressures at the ice–water boundary,

\[ \rho_i(y_s-z)=\rho_iD-\rho_wz. \]

Thus

\[ y_s=D-\frac{\rho_w-\rho_i}{\rho_i}z. \]

Substitution of the conical boundary gives

\[ \boxed{ y_s(R)=D-\frac{\rho_w-\rho_i}{\rho_i} H\left(1-\frac Rr\right), \qquad 0\le R\le r.} \]

Outside the footprint, \(y_s=D\). The depression depth is

\[ \delta= \frac{\rho_w-\rho_i}{\rho_i}H =\frac{83}{917}(1000\ \mathrm m) =90.51\ \mathrm m. \]

Therefore the surface is an inverted cone of radius \(1.0\) km, meeting the surrounding horizontal surface continuously. Its lowest point is

\[ y_s(0)=2000-90.51=1909.49\ \mathrm m. \]

For a central vertical section, set \(R=|x|\). With coordinates in kilometres, join

\[ (-1.000,\ 2.000),\qquad (0,\ 1.90949),\qquad (1.000,\ 2.000) \]

by straight segments, and continue horizontally at \(y=2.000\) km on both sides. Rotating this profile about the vertical axis gives the surface depression.

d) Volcanic intrusion

Let

\[ f(R)=1-\frac Rr,\qquad 0\le R\le r, \]

where \(r=500\) m. The final surface, water–ice boundary, and rock surface have the forms

\[ y_s=D-hf(R),\qquad y_W=Hf(R),\qquad y_M=h_1f(R). \]

Here \(D=2000\) m and \(h=100\) m.

1. Height of the top of the water cone

The hydrostatic relation derived in part c applies again:

\[ D-y_s=\frac{\rho_w-\rho_i}{\rho_i}y_W. \]

At the centre,

\[ h=\frac{\rho_w-\rho_i}{\rho_i}H. \]

Hence

\[ \boxed{H=\frac{\rho_i h}{\rho_w-\rho_i} =\frac{917(100)}{83} =1104.82\ \mathrm m.} \]

This height is measured from the original bed. The actual central water depth will be \(H-h_1\).

2. Height of the intrusion

First determine how much ice has melted. The final ice thickness in a vertical column is

\[ y_s-y_W=D-(h+H)f(R). \]

Since ice moves only vertically, each column loses an ice thickness

\[ (h+H)f(R). \]

The initial lifting by the magma does not change the amount of ice in a column. Thus the total melted ice volume is

\[ V_{\mathrm{melt}} =\int_0^r (h+H)\left(1-\frac Rr\right)2\pi R\,dR =\frac{\pi r^2}{3}(h+H). \]

Write

\[ C=\frac{\pi r^2}{3}. \]

Then

\[ m_{tot}=\rho_i C(h+H), \qquad V_M=Ch_1, \qquad m_M=\rho_rCh_1. \]

At final thermal equilibrium, the rock and the ice–water mixture are at \(0^\circ\mathrm C\). Each kilogram of magma releases

\[ q_M=L_r+c_r(1200^\circ\mathrm C-T_0) =4.2\times10^5+700(1200) =1.26\times10^6\ \mathrm{J/kg}. \]

This includes both solidification and cooling. Neglecting heat losses and small mechanical-energy changes, conservation of energy gives

\[ \rho_rCh_1q_M=\rho_i C(h+H)L_i. \]

Therefore

\[ h_1= \frac{\rho_i(h+H)L_i} {\rho_r[L_r+c_r(1200^\circ\mathrm C-T_0)]}. \]

The hydrostatic relation also implies

\[ \rho_i(h+H)=\rho_wH, \]

so equivalently,

\[ h_1= \frac{\rho_wHL_i} {\rho_r[L_r+c_r(1200^\circ\mathrm C-T_0)]}. \]

Numerically,

\[ \boxed{ h_1= \frac{1000(1104.819)(3.4\times10^5)} {2900(1.26\times10^6)} =102.80\ \mathrm m \simeq103\ \mathrm m.} \]

The intrusion volume is consequently

\[ V_M=\frac{\pi(500)^2}{3}(102.802) =2.691\times10^7\ \mathrm{m^3}. \]

3. Total water production and water escaping

From the melted ice volume,

\[ m_{tot} =\rho_iC(h+H) =\rho_wCH. \]

Thus

\[ \boxed{ m_{tot} =1000\frac{\pi(500)^2}{3}(1104.819) =2.8924\times10^{11}\ \mathrm{kg} \simeq2.9\times10^{11}\ \mathrm{kg}.} \]

The remaining water occupies the space between the water–ice cone and the rock cone. Its volume is

\[ V_{\mathrm{remaining}}=C(H-h_1), \]

and its mass is

\[ m_{\mathrm{remaining}} =\rho_wC(H-h_1) =2.6233\times10^{11}\ \mathrm{kg}. \]

Mass conservation therefore gives

\[ \begin{aligned} m' &=m_{tot}-m_{\mathrm{remaining}}\\ &=\rho_wCH-\rho_wC(H-h_1)\\ &=\rho_wCh_1. \end{aligned} \]

Hence

\[ \boxed{ m'=1000\frac{\pi(500)^2}{3}(102.802) =2.6914\times10^{10}\ \mathrm{kg} \simeq2.7\times10^{10}\ \mathrm{kg}.} \]

The escaped water volume equals the intrusion volume:

\[ \boxed{\frac{m'}{\rho_w}=V_M.} \]

This also explains the two stages. Initially the magma lifts the ice without reducing its thickness, so water on the elevated rock surface has excess hydraulic pressure and drains away. At the end of this drainage stage, the ice–water boundary is approximately the rock surface \(h_1f(R)\). Hydrostatic equilibrium then requires an ice thickness

\[ D-\frac{\rho_w}{\rho_i}h_1f(R). \]

The ice melted by that stage has mass \(\rho_wCh_1\), exactly the escaped mass found above. Further melting produces the retained water body.

Description of the plot

For a central vertical section, use \(R=|x|\). Within \(|x|\le500\) m,

\[ \begin{aligned} y_M(x)&=102.802\left(1-\frac{|x|}{500}\right)\ \mathrm m,\\ y_W(x)&=1104.819\left(1-\frac{|x|}{500}\right)\ \mathrm m,\\ y_s(x)&=2000-100\left(1-\frac{|x|}{500}\right)\ \mathrm m, \end{aligned} \]

where \(x\) is numerically expressed in metres.

Use the following coordinates and join adjacent points by straight lines:

\(x\) (m) Rock surface \(y_M\) (m) Water–ice boundary \(y_W\) (m) Ice surface \(y_s\) (m)
\(-500\) 0 0 2000
\(-250\) 51.4 552.4 1950
\(0\) 102.8 1104.8 1900
\(250\) 51.4 552.4 1950
\(500\) 0 0 2000

Draw the original bed along \(y=0\), shade the intrusion between the bed and \(y_M\), and shade the water between \(y_M\) and \(y_W\). The ice lies between \(y_W\) and \(y_s\). Outside the footprint, the bed remains at \(y=0\) and the ice surface at \(y=2000\) m.

Using equal length scales on both axes, the intrusion is only about \(103\) m high, while the water boundary reaches about \(1105\) m. The central water depth is

\[ H-h_1\simeq1002\ \mathrm m, \]

and the remaining ice directly above it is about \(795\) m thick.

The solution was checked against the official solution.