International Chemistry Olympiad

IChO 2026

Tashkent, Uzbekistan · 9 theory problems with complete solutions

  1. Problem 1: A journey through time: The secrets of Avicenna

    T1. A journey through time: The secrets of Avicenna

    7%

    1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 \(\sum\)
    3 4 3 4 7 4 25
    Figure 1

    A chemist found herself in the 11th Century, where she met the renowned physician Avicenna. In Avicenna's laboratory, she discovered a blue elixir and a yellow mysterious stone. She brought them back to 2026. Determined to uncover their composition, she began her research.

    Part 1. The blue elixir

    At first, the chemist compiled a table listing the names of the only four plants which she saw in Avicenna’s lab that could have been used to prepare the elixir, and the compounds that can be extracted from these plants.

    Plants Compounds that can be extracted
    Zingiber 1 (\(\ce{C11H14O3}\)) 2 (\(\ce{C10H18O}\)) 3 (\(\ce{C10H18O}\))
    Hypericum 4 (\(\ce{C6H12O}\)) 5 (\(\ce{C10H12O2}\)) 6 (\(\ce{C10H18O}\))
    Chamomilla 7 (\(\ce{C14H16}\)) 8 (\(\ce{C15H24}\)) 3 (\(\ce{C10H18O}\))
    Artemisia 9 (\(\ce{C10H16O}\)) 10 (\(\ce{C10H18O}\)) 3 (\(\ce{C10H18O}\))
    Figure 2
    Figure 3
    Figure 4
    Figure 5

    Using chromatography, she determined that the elixir consists of four different substances (X, Y, Z and W).

    The chemist then discovered that X can isomerise into Y in an acidic medium and that Y has a plane of symmetry.

    1.1 Identify X and Y. — 3.0 pt

    Chromatography also revealed it was substance Z that gave the elixir its blue colour. Z is a derivative of the well-known substance A, which has two perpendicular planes of symmetry. When heated, A isomerises into aromatic compound B, which has three mutually perpendicular planes of symmetry. When substance Z is chlorinated, a pair of peaks with an intensity ratio of 3:1 is observed in the mass spectrum at \(m/z\) 218 and 220, respectively.

    1.2 Identify Z and draw the structures of substances A and B. — 4.0 pt

    The chemist extracted W from the elixir. When W was added to an aqueous \(\ce{Fe^3+}\) solution, a characteristic colour change was observed. Mass spectrometric analysis of W revealed the intensity ratio of \([\mathrm{M}]^+:[\mathrm{M}+1]^+=9:1\), where M is the molecular ion. Assume carbon consists exclusively of \(\ce{^{12}C}\) and \(\ce{^{13}C}\), the natural isotopic abundance of \(\ce{^{12}C}\) is 98.9%, and all other elements are monoisotopic.

    1.3 Determine the number of carbon atoms (\(n\)) from the mass spec data and identify W. Show your calculations. — 3.0 pt

    Part 2. The mysterious stone

    Avicenna had told her the stone was a stoichiometric compound. She dissolved it in dilute nitric acid. After that, she adjusted the pH of the solution to ~4 and added \(\ce{NaF}\). This led to the formation of precipitate \(\mathbf{C}\cdot x\ce{H2O}\), which contained 39.16% water by mass. Anhydrous C reacts with an excess of \(\ce{NaF}\) to yield compound D, which contains 32.85% sodium and 12.85% of metal Q by mass, and is used in the industrial production of Q.

    Figure 6

    1.4 Identify metal Q and compounds \(\mathbf{C}\cdot x\ce{H2O}\) and D. — 4.0 pt

    Avicenna told her that he found the stone in a coal deposit. The stone contains the anion of a highly symmetrical acid F. Reaction of F with \(\ce{P2O5}\) gives binary compound G, which contains 49.98% of oxygen by mass and has a three-fold symmetry axis. F can be prepared by oxidising compound E with potassium permanganate in an acidic solution. E contains 11.18% of hydrogen by mass and has a six-fold symmetry axis.

    Figure 7

    1.5 Draw the structures of E, F, and G. — 7.0 pt

    Then, she analysed the stone thermogravimetrically in open air. A 10.00 g sample began to lose mass at approximately \(100\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\) and stopped at 5.75 g at \(200\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\). A second drop in mass was observed at \(400\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\), with a final mass of 1.50 g of compound H remaining constant at higher temperatures.

    1.6 Determine the chemical formulae of the stone and compound H using thermogravimetric data. — 4.0 pt

    Periodic Table of Elements

    Figure 8

    Official English text of the problem.

  2. Problem 2: Kinetics of the Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction

    T2. Kinetics of the Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction

    6%

    2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 \(\sum\)
    2 11 4 2 9 4 3 35

    When the chemicals \(\ce{KBrO3}\), \(\ce{CH2(COOH)2}\) (malonic acid, – MA), \(\ce{Ce(SO4)2}\), and \(\ce{H2SO4}\) are mixed, the concentration, \(C\), of Ce species and the colour of the solution oscillates between yellow (due to \(\ce{Ce^4+}\)) and colourless (due to \(\ce{Ce^3+}\)). A schematic picture is given below:

    Figure 1

    2.1 — 2.0 pt

    Write the overall balanced reaction equation of the Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction (BZ reaction). Note: in this reaction, MA is oxidised to \(\ce{CO2}\), \(\ce{BrO3-}\) is reduced to \(\ce{Br-}\), and Ce(IV) is a catalyst.

    The mechanism of the BZ reaction is shown below (BMA – \(\ce{CHBr(COOH)2}\)):

    Figure 2
    \(k_1=1.0\times10^4\ \mathrm{M^{-2}\,s^{-1}}\)
    \(k_2=6.2\times10^4\ \mathrm{M^{-2}\,s^{-1}}\)
    \(k_3=4.0\times10^7\ \mathrm{M^{-1}\,s^{-1}}\)
    \(k_4=2.0\times10^9\ \mathrm{M^{-2}\,s^{-1}}\)
    \(k_5=2.1\ \mathrm{M^{-3}\,s^{-1}}\)
    \(k_6=8.2\ \mathrm{M^{-1}\,s^{-1}}\)
    \(k_7=1.0\times10^2\ \mathrm{M^{-1}\,s^{-1}}\)

    In the BZ reaction, Process C occurs continuously, while Processes A and B alternate with each other.

    Assume that:

    • when Process A occurs the solution is yellow and Process B practically does not occur;
    • when Process B occurs the solution is colourless and Process A practically does not occur;
    • \([\ce{BrO3-}]_0=0.06\ \mathrm{M}\), \([\mathrm{MA}]_0=0.1\ \mathrm{M}\), \([\ce{H+}]_0=0.8\ \mathrm{M}\), \([\ce{Ce^4+}]_0=0.001\ \mathrm{M}\);
    • the concentrations of the reactants (except \(\ce{Ce^4+}\)) and pH are maintained constant throughout the BZ reaction.

    2.2 — 11.0 pt

    Using the steady-state approximation, calculate the stationary molar concentrations of \(\ce{HBrO2}\) in Processes A and B, \([\ce{HBrO2}]_{\mathrm A}\) and \([\ce{HBrO2}]_{\mathrm B}\).

    If you could not calculate \([\ce{HBrO2}]_{\mathrm A}\) and \([\ce{HBrO2}]_{\mathrm B}\), you can use the values \([\ce{HBrO2}]_{\mathrm A}=1\times10^{-5}\ \mathrm{M}\) and \([\ce{HBrO2}]_{\mathrm B}=1\times10^{-10}\ \mathrm{M}\) for the following calculations.

    During the BZ reaction, the concentrations of \(\ce{HBrO2}\) and \(\ce{Br-}\) oscillate strictly in relation to each other, and this is sketched in the phase portrait of \([\ce{HBrO2}]\) vs \([\ce{Br-}]\):

    Figure 3

    Here \([\ce{Br-}]_{\max}\) is the maximum concentration and \([\ce{Br-}]_{\mathrm{critical}}\) is the critical concentration of \(\ce{Br-}\) at which there is a switch over in processes from A to B or from B to A. To switch Process A to Process B, the reaction rate of the elementary step (4) must exceed that of the elementary step (1) and vice versa.

    2.3 — 4.0 pt

    Calculate \([\ce{Br-}]_{\mathrm{critical}}\).

    If you could not calculate \([\ce{Br-}]_{\mathrm{critical}}\), use \([\ce{Br-}]_{\mathrm{critical}}=1\times10^{-7}\ \mathrm{M}\) for the following calculations.

    2.4 — 2.0 pt

    In which direction in the phase portrait of \([\ce{HBrO2}]\) vs \([\ce{Br-}]\) will the concentrations of \([\ce{HBrO2}]\) and \([\ce{Br-}]\) change over time? Tick the correct box.

    Figure 4

    The system does not traverse the phase portrait of \([\ce{HBrO2}]\) vs \([\ce{Br-}]\) at a constant velocity, that is the concentration of \([\ce{Br-}]\) slowly decreases from \([\ce{Br-}]_{\max}=7.0\times10^{-4}\ \mathrm{M}\) to \([\ce{Br-}]_{\mathrm{critical}}\), and then almost immediately reaches \([\ce{Br-}]_{\max}\) again.

    2.5 — 9.0 pt

    Calculate based on the data the period of oscillations, \(\tau\), of the BZ reaction, in seconds.

    2.6 — 4.0 pt

    What will be the effect if the following actions (1-4) are performed on an open system where a BZ reaction is taking place? Tick only one box (a-e) for each case.

    1. Adding of small amount of \(\ce{Ce^4+}\) during Process A.
    2. Adding of a small amount of \(\ce{Ag+}\) during Process B.
    3. Adding of a small amount of \(\ce{Br-}\) during Process B.
    4. Continuous addition of \(\ce{Br-}\).
    [ a ] prolongs Process A
    [ b ] prolongs Process B
    [ c ] Process A switches to Process B
    [ d ] Process B switches to Process A
    [ e ] oscillations stop

    2.7 — 3.0 pt

    Which graph qualitatively illustrates the rate of change of Gibbs energy \(\left(\frac{dG}{dt}\right)\) of a closed system in which an oscillatory reaction occurs? Tick the correct box.

    Figure 5

    Official English text of the problem.

  3. Problem 3: Into Reticular Chemistry

    T3. Into Reticular Chemistry

    7%

    3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 \(\sum\)
    2 3 23 12 6 12 5 63

    Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) are a class of polymers that form two- or three-dimensional structures through reactions between organic precursors, resulting in covalent bonds to afford porous, crystalline materials. Two examples of honeycomb type 2D-COFs formed by boronate ester and boroxine rings (repeat units indicated using dashed lines) are shown in the figure below.

    The black and red bold lines represent different building blocks in all COF topology figures.

    Figure 1

    3.1 Determine the empirical formula of COF-1 and calculate the mass percentage (%, to two decimal places) of carbon in COF-1. 2.0 pt

    3.2 Calculate the internal diameter, \(d\), in Å, of the honeycomb for COF-2, with the following assumptions: 3.0 pt

    • \(\ce{C-C}/\ce{C=C}\) (arenes) = 1.39 Å
    • \(\ce{C-B}\) = 1.56 Å
    • \(\ce{B-O}\) = 1.38 Å
    • Note, the diameter of a circle, \(d\), inscribed inside a hexagon, is given by \(d=\sqrt{3}a\), where \(a\) is the side length of the hexagon.
    • Neglect the width of the linkers.

    The structures shown below can form 2D and 3D COFs. For this question consider only formation of COFs with boronate esters, imines, and \(\ce{C=C}\) bonds through condensation reactions. A–E represent compound classes with different functional groups.

    Figure 2
    Figure 3

    Tetragonal means Tetragonal, Hexagonal means Hexagonal, Trigonal means Trigonal, Kagome means Kagome, Tetrahedral means Tetrahedral.

    3.3 Fill all the table cells with either new examples of monomer combinations that give the topologies shown above or with “XXX” if you are certain that no additional combinations satisfy that topology. Both the combinations and the “XXX” entries will be graded. Incorrect answers (both combinations and “XXX” entries) will be penalised. Blank table cells will not be graded. 23.0 pt

    Tetragonal 1 Tetragonal 2 Hexagonal 1 Hexagonal 2 Trigonal Kagome Tetrahedral
    ■ ■ A2 + B3 E1 + D2 ■ C2 + D4 ■

    Whilst imine-based COFs are easily synthesised, they are also vulnerable to hydrolysis under strongly acidic and basic conditions. The addition of hydroxy groups to the aldehyde or amine monomers can overcome this. IR spectrum of COF-3 contained stretches corresponding to the imine functional group, but COF-4 did not. COF-4 contains a different type of \(\ce{C=N}\) bonds, and elemental analysis revealed a loss of six additional hydrogen atoms per repeat unit relative to COF-3 as the only change. COF-5 irreversibly isomerises to COF-6, which did not contain imine stretches in its IR spectrum.

    Figure 4
    Figure 5

    3.4 Draw the repeat units for COFs 3–6. Indicate the edges of each repeat unit with a dashed line as shown for COF-1 below. 12.0 pt

    Figure 6

    Macrocycle X was synthesised by post-synthetic modification of COF-7 (C2 + D4) followed by degradation.

    Figure 7

    3.5 Draw the smallest repeat unit of macrocycle X. 6.0 pt

    π-π interactions result in different stacking modes of COF layers, some of which are shown below.

    Figure 8

    Depending on stacking geometry, the interaction energy can be different as shown below.

    Figure 9
    Interaction geometry \(E/\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\) \(E/\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)
    benzene (\(\ce{X = CH}\)) – benzene (b-b) −7.9 −12.6
    benzene-triazine (\(\ce{X = N}\)) (b-t) −49.8 −55.6
    triazine–triazine (t-t) −6.7 −16.7

    COF-8, synthesised from (E1 + D2), is notable for its remarkable stability. The AA′ slightly shifted mode of a COF-8 bilayer has a π-π stacking interaction energy of \(-67.1\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\) between two layers of one repeat unit.

    Figure 10

    3.6 Calculate the π-π stacking energy between two layers of one repeat unit of COF-8, for the AA, AB and AB′ arrangements. Assume π-π stacking happens only between aromatic units. 12.0 pt

    COF-9, obtained from COF-8, absorbs \(\ce{UO2^{2+}}\) ions and loses its fluorescence. In an experiment, a suspension of 5.000 mg COF-9 in \(19.90\ \mathrm{mg\,dm^{-3}}\) \(\ce{UO2^{2+}}\) solution (200.0 mL) was filtered after equilibrium was reached. The final concentration of \(\ce{UO2^{2+}}\) was \(9.225\ \mathrm{mg\,dm^{-3}}\).

    Figure 11

    3.7 Calculate the equilibrium absorption capacity at a given temperature (\(q_e\)) in \(\mathrm{mg\,g^{-1}}\) of COF-9. Indicate the number of \(\ce{UO2^{2+}}\) ions absorbed per pore. Assume that all uranium exists as \(\ce{UO2^{2+}}\) ions. 5.0 pt

    Periodic Table of Elements

    Figure 12

    Official English text of the problem.

  4. Problem 4: The nuclear past of Uzbekistan

    T4. The nuclear past of Uzbekistan

    6%

    4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 \(\sum\)
    2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 4 22

    Natural uranium consists primarily of two isotopes, \(\ce{^{235}U}\) and \(\ce{^{238}U}\). \(\ce{^{235}U}\) is responsible for sustaining nuclear fission reactions.

    4.1 Calculate the atomic abundance of \(\ce{^{235}U}\) in natural uranium, assuming it consists only of isotopes \(\ce{^{235}U}\) (235.04 a.u.) and \(\ce{^{238}U}\) (238.05 a.u.). 2.0 pt

    The main reaction occurring in nuclear power plants is the reaction where \(\ce{^{235}U}\) absorbs a neutron and undergoes fission, releasing energy and producing three additional neutrons, thus sustaining a chain reaction.

    Figure 1

    Neutrons that induce the chain reaction are produced by several ways:

    a) Reaction of \(\ce{^{11}B}\) with \(\alpha\)-particles inside the reactor core

    b) Interaction of \(\gamma\) rays with \(\ce{^{2}D}\) nuclei present in the reactor coolant water

    c) Reaction of \(\ce{^{9}Be}\) with \(\alpha\)-particles produced in an externally installed neutron source.

    4.2 Write the nuclear reaction equations for (a), (b), and (c). 3.0 pt

    Figure 2

    The graph above displays the percentage yield, \(P(A)\), of fission products by mass number, \(A\), resulting from \(\ce{^{235}U}\) fission.

    4.3 Write the main nuclear fission equation for splitting of \(\ce{^{235}U}\) upon neutron absorption. The pair of elements formed in this reaction are in the same group of Periodic Table. 3.0 pt

    4.4 Calculate the energy released in this reaction (\(\Delta E\), MeV), if the binding energy \(BE(\ce{^{235}U})=7.59\ \text{MeV/nucleon}\) and average binding energy for fission products \(BE(\text{fis.})=8.45\ \text{MeV/nucleon}\). Neglect the binding energy of free neutrons. 2.0 pt

    Fission neutrons are produced with an average energy of 2 MeV and slow down through many scatterings with nuclei. After several collisions, their speed decreases until their average kinetic energy matches that of the surrounding atoms or molecules.

    The logarithmic energy decrement, \(\xi\), shows the average decrease per collision in the logarithm of the neutron energy:

    \[ \xi=\ln\left(\frac{E_{\mathit{initial}}}{E_{\mathit{final}}}\right) \]

    \(E_{\mathit{initial}}\) and \(E_{\mathit{final}}\) are the initial and final neutron energies per collision.

    \(\xi\) is a constant for each type of material and does not depend on the initial neutron energy.

    4.5 Determine the average number of collisions required, \(n_c\), to slow a neutron from 2 MeV to 0.012 eV, using water as the moderator. \(\xi\) (water)=0.948 2.0 pt

    In 1963, the Urtabulak gas field suffered an uncontrolled natural gas well blowout, releasing enormous volumes of burning methane.

    4.6 Calculate \(\Delta_rH^\circ_{298}\) (\(\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)) for one mole of methane combustion reaction at 298 K. Assume all species are gaseous. Use the thermodynamic data below 2.0 pt

    \(\Delta_fH^\circ_{298}(\ce{CH4})\) \(-74.8\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)
    \(\Delta_fH^\circ_{298}(\ce{H2O},\text{ gas})\) \(-241.8\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)
    \(\Delta_fH^\circ_{298}(\ce{CO2})\) \(-393.5\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)
    \(C_P(\ce{CH4})\) \(35\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}}\)
    \(C_P(\ce{H2O},\text{ gas})\) \(34\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}}\)
    \(C_P(\ce{O2})\) \(29\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}}\)
    \(C_P(\ce{CO2})\) \(37\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}}\)

    If you did not get an answer for 4.6, use \(\Delta_rH^\circ_{298}=-750\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\) for further calculations.

    4.7 Calculate \(\Delta_rH_{2000}\) (\(\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)) per mole of methane combustion reaction at 2000 K. Assume all species are gaseous. 2.0 pt

    If you did not get an answer for 4.7, use \(\Delta_rH_{2000}=-700\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\) for further calculations.

    Assume that methane is flowing out the well at 101.325 kPa and 298 K with volumetric flow \(Q=2.2\times10^5\ \mathrm{m^3}\) per day before it catches fire.

    4.8 Calculate the total energy released per day, \(E\), (in \(\mathrm{J\,day^{-1}}\)) by complete isothermic combustion of methane at \(T=2000\ \mathrm K\) 2.0 pt

    The Urtabulak gas leak was ended by detonating a 30-kiloton in TNT equivalent underground nuclear explosion that collapsed the reservoir and sealed the leak. 1 ton of TNT equivalent is 4.184 GJ of energy.

    4.9 Using the value from 4.4, calculate the total number of fissions, \(TN\), during the nuclear explosion. Calculate the mass, \(m\), of enriched uranium used in the explosion (in kg), assuming it contained 90% by mass of the \(\ce{^{235}U}\) isotope, and 33% of the \(\ce{^{235}U}\) underwent fission.
    If you did not get an answer for 4.4, use \(\Delta E=200\ \mathrm{MeV}\). 4.0 pt

    Physical Constants and Equations

    Constants

    Avogadro constant \(N_A=6.022\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}\)
    Universal gas constant \(R=8.314\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}\)
    Faraday constant \(F=96\,485\ \mathrm{C\,mol^{-1}}\)
    Planck constant \(h=6.626\times10^{-34}\ \mathrm{J\,s}\)
    Speed of light in vacuum \(c=2.998\times10^8\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\)
    Mass of electron \(m_e=9.109\times10^{-31}\ \mathrm{kg}\)
    Charge of electron \(e=1.602\times10^{-19}\ \mathrm C\)
    Standard pressure \(P^\circ=1\ \mathrm{bar}=10^5\ \mathrm{Pa}\)
    Ionic product of water at \(25\,^\circ\mathrm C\) \(K_w=1.00\times10^{-14}\)
    Zero of the Celsius scale \(0\,^\circ\mathrm C=273.15\ \mathrm K\)
    Electronvolt \(1\ \mathrm{eV}=1.602\times10^{-19}\ \mathrm J\)
    Watt \(1\ \mathrm W=1\ \mathrm{J\,s^{-1}}\)
    Coulomb \(1\ \mathrm C=1\ \mathrm{A\,s}\)
    Nanometre \(1\ \mathrm{nm}=1\times10^{-9}\ \mathrm m\)
    Ångstrom \(1\ \text{Å}=1\times10^{-10}\ \mathrm m\)
    metric ton \(1\ \mathrm{ton}=1000\ \mathrm{kg}\)
    litre \(1\ \mathrm L=1\ \mathrm{dm^3}\)

    Equations

    Ideal gas law \(PV=nRT\)
    Dalton law \(P_i=x_iP\)
    Beer–Lambert law \(A=\log_{10}\dfrac{I_0}{I}=\varepsilon cl\)
    Energy of a photon \(E=h\nu=\dfrac{hc}{\lambda}\)
    Heat and temperature change \(Q=nC_m\Delta T\)
    Gibbs energy definition \(G=H-TS\)
    Gibbs energy and equilibrium constant \(\Delta_rG^\circ=-RT\ln K\)
    Enthalpy change dependence on temperature (at \(\Delta_rC_p=\mathit{const}\)) \(\Delta_rH_{T_2}=\Delta_rH_{T_1}+\Delta_rC_p(T_2-T_1)\)
    Entropy change dependence on temperature (at \(\Delta_rC_p=\mathit{const}\)) \(\Delta_rS_{T_2}=\Delta_rS_{T_1}+\Delta_rC_p\ln\dfrac{T_2}{T_1}\)
    Henderson–Hasselbalch equation \(\mathrm{pH}=\mathrm pK_a+\log_{10}\dfrac{[\ce{A-}]}{[\ce{HA}]}\)
    Average reaction rate \(r=\dfrac{\Delta c}{\Delta t}\)
    The rate law \(r=k[A]^x[B]^y\)
    Arrhenius law \(k=A\exp\left(-\dfrac{E_a}{RT}\right)\)
    Integrated rate law for a 1st order reaction \(c=c_0e^{-kt}\)
    \(kt=\ln\dfrac{c_0}{c}\)
    Lifetime of a reagent in a 1st order reaction \(\tau=\dfrac1k\)
    Integrated rate law for n-th order reaction (\(n\ne1\)) \(kt=\dfrac1{n-1}\left(c^{1-n}-c_0^{1-n}\right)\) for \(n\ne1\)
    Concentration of an intermediate in a consecutive reaction: \([B]=\dfrac{k_1[A]_0}{k_2-k_1}\left(e^{-k_1t}-e^{-k_2t}\right)\)
    Figure 3
    The ratio of products in the competitive reactions: \(\dfrac{[B]}{[C]}=\dfrac{k_1}{k_2}\)
    Figure 4
    Michaelis–Menten equation \(r_0=r_{\max}\dfrac{[S]_0}{K_M+[S]_0}\)
    Specific surface area \(s=\dfrac Sm\)
    Progressions: arithmetic geometric \(a_n=a_1+d(n-1)\)
    \(a_n=a_1q^{n-1}\)
    Sum of geometric progression \(\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a_1q^k=a_1\dfrac{q^{n+1}-1}{q-1}\)
    Volume of a sphere with radius \(r\) \(V=\dfrac43\pi r^3\)
    Surface area of sphere with radius \(r\) \(S=4\pi r^2\)
    Volume of a cone with base radius \(r\) and height \(h\) \(V=\dfrac13\pi r^2h\)
    Volume of a cylinder with base radius \(r\) and height \(h\) \(V=\pi r^2h\)

    Consider all gases ideal.

    In equilibrium constant calculations, all concentrations are referenced to the concentration of \(1\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}\).

    Periodic Table of Elements

    Figure 5

    Official English text of the problem.

  5. Problem 5: Cardiolipins

    T5. Cardiolipins

    6%

    5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 \(\Sigma\)
    1 6 4 2 2 3 18

    In this problem you are asked to be creative and build molecules from fragments. For instance, if you are required to draw a chiral phospholipid such as W using fragments a-e, it can be assembled as shown below.

    Figure 1

    Cardiolipins are a family of acyclic phospholipids differing in fatty acid residues. They are essential for energy production and membrane stability. Defects can lead to certain diseases. PL1 belongs to this family. Using only the structural elements a-d in the quantities stated below, it is possible to assemble the non-ionised form of PL1. R is a hydrocarbon substituent in the fatty acid structure.

    Figure 2

    PL1 does not contain any peroxide bonds.

    5.1 Tick one correct statement regarding the value of \(n\) (number of type \(a\) fragments). 1.0 pt

    (a) \(n\) is an even number,
    (b) \(n\) is an odd number,
    (c) \(n\) can be either an odd or an even number.

    Some cardiolipins are chiral molecules, even if they contain four identical fatty acid residues, as in the case of PL1. One enantiomer of PL1 is found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and the other only in archaea. All other diastereomers of PL1 are achiral molecules, since they have a plane of symmetry. Do not consider the chirality of phosphorus atoms as stereocentres.

    PL1 is a diprotic acid with the same acidic groups. Its second deprotonation is less favourable (\(pK_{a_2}\gg pK_{a_1}\)) due to the special, stable structure of monoanion Y.

    5.2 Draw the structure of one enantiomer of PL1. Draw the structure of Y in a way that shows the stabilisation that explains the difference between \(pK_{a_1}\) and \(pK_{a_2}\). Use the abbreviation R for the fatty acid residues. 6.0 pt

    A series of experiments was conducted to identify the fatty acid (RCOOH) in PL1 found predominantly in mammalian hearts. During reductive ozonolysis, RCOOH forms three different organic products in equimolar amounts.

    5.3 Determine the molecular formula of the fatty acid (RCOOH), if the non-ionised form of PL1 contains 255 \(\sigma\) and \(\pi\) bonds between atoms in total. Support your answer with calculations. 4.0 pt

    If you were unable to find the structural formula of PL1, you can use a-d fragments from 5.1.

    100 g of RCOOH reacts with 181.0 g of iodine. RCOOH also reacts in similar way with X and forms an adduct with an iodine mass fraction of 36.57%.

    5.4 Determine the molecular formula of X. Support your answer with calculations. 2.0 pt

    The phase behavior of PL1 depends on pH. In physiological conditions, PL1 is a dianion and it forms a lamellar phase.

    5.5 Which lipid phase is formed by PL1 when both acid residues in it are protonated? 2.0 pt
    Note that knowledge of PL1 structure is not required to solve this question.
    Tick the correct answer.

    Figure 3

    The following balanced reaction equations show the hydrolysis of phospholipids PL1-PL3:

    Figure 4
    • The non-ionised form of PL2 contains 254 \(\sigma\) and \(\pi\) bonds between atoms in total. It is a chiral and a more symmetrical molecule than PL1,
    • Z contains C, H, and O only, and it doesn’t react with \(\ce{H2}\) in the presence of a catalyst,
    • Phospholipid PL3 is a charged molecule at physiological pH values, and it exists as pair of enantiomers.

    5.6 Draw the structures of PL2 and PL3 using R to show the fatty acid residues. Show stereochemistry where appropriate. 3.0 pt

    Periodic Table of Elements

    Figure 5

    Official English text of the problem.

  6. Problem 6: Carbon Nanorings

    T6. Carbon Nanorings

    7%

    6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 \(\sum\)
    10 11 2 12 24 20 4 83

    In 2019, \(\ce{C18}\), the first example of a new class of carbon allotropes called cyclo[n]carbons (\(\ce{C_n}\)) was detected. Cyclocarbons are monocyclic, all-carbon compounds with high strain energy and low stability. They can be generated and analysed by bond-resolved Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). Cyclocarbons have interesting aromatic properties based on their \(\pi\) systems. \(\ce{C13}\) has triplet (\({}^{3}\ce{C13}\), spin \(S=1\)), and singlet (\({}^{1}\ce{C13}\), spin \(S=0\)) forms.

    6.1 Based on Hückel’s rule, fill in the table with the number of distinct aromatic (A) and anti-aromatic (AA) \(\pi\)-systems present in each of \(\ce{C18}\), \(\ce{C16}\), \({}^{3}\ce{C13}\), and \({}^{1}\ce{C13}\). Fill in all blanks. 10.0 pt

    Figure 1

    Later, cyclo[n]carbons \(\ce{C10}\), \(\ce{C12}\), \(\ce{C14}\), \(\ce{C20}\), and \(\ce{C26}\) were generated by a combination of dehalogenation and retro-Bergman (1) reactions on a surface. AFM images taken during the synthesis of \(\ce{C14}\) are shown below:

    Figure 2
    Figure 3

    6.2 Draw structures B-D. Note they may contain one or more unpaired electrons. The structure of A is given as an example. 11.0 pt

    Figure 4

    6.3 The voltages applied during the AFM-mediated synthesis of \(\ce{C_n}\) may vary. Using the given C–X bond energies, choose the possible halogen(s) in the halogenated reagent for \(\ce{C18}\) synthesis via a retro-Bergman reaction with a voltage of 2.5 V acting on the electrons. 2.0 pt

    Bond (C–X) Bond Dissociation Energy / \(\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)
    C–F 467
    C–Cl 346
    C–Br 290
    C–I 228

    In 2025, the first relatively stable cyclo[48]carbon was synthesised. The molecule was stabilised by catenation (forming interlocking rings) with macrocycle E and was first characterised by electrospray mass spectrometry in positive mode.

    Figure 5

    6.4 In the mass spectrum obtained, four intense peaks were observed \(m/z\): 591, 783, 879, and 1174. Suggest the identity of these ions. Use integer atomic masses and assume no fragmentation happened. The ion corresponding to \(m/z=591\) is given as an example. 12.0 pt

    Figure 6

    Cycloparaphenylene (CPP) is another cyclic, highly-strained molecule commonly called a carbon nanohoop. The synthesis of the smallest known member, [5]CPP, is shown below, where \(\ce{PhI(OAc)2}\) acts as a two electron oxidant.

    Figure 7

    (equiv. = Equivalent, excess = Excess)

    6.5 Draw the structures of F-L. 24.0 pt

    Next generation nanobelts were constructed from porphyrin rings and triple bonds using the template synthesis method. Hint: M is the thermodynamic product and has four types of protons.

    Figure 8

    (equiv. = Equivalent)

    6.6 Draw the structures of M-R. 20.0 pt

    When aromatic rings are joined to form a macrocycle, oxidation or reduction can produce global aromaticity, in which \(\pi\) electrons are delocalised around the entire macrocycle. Only the \(\pi\) system forming the continuous conjugated pathway around the ring participates in this delocalisation. As an example, [n]CPPs can become globally aromatic upon addition or removal of electrons. The number of \(\pi\) electrons is counted only along the bold pathway shown below.

    Figure 9

    When P6 is oxidised, it can exhibit global aromaticity and global anti-aromaticity.

    6.7 Based on Hückel’s rule, find the minimum number of electrons, \(n(e)\), from P6 that should be removed to achieve global aromaticity. Write the total number of \(\pi\) electrons, \(n(t)\), in the global aromatic system. 4.0 pt

    Physical Constants and Equations

    Constants

    Constant Value
    Avogadro constant \(N_A=6.022\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}\)
    Universal gas constant \(R=8.314\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}\)
    Faraday constant \(F=96\,485\ \mathrm{C\,mol^{-1}}\)
    Planck constant \(h=6.626\times10^{-34}\ \mathrm{J\,s}\)
    Speed of light in vacuum \(c=2.998\times10^8\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\)
    Mass of electron \(m_e=9.109\times10^{-31}\ \mathrm{kg}\)
    Charge of electron \(e=1.602\times10^{-19}\ \mathrm{C}\)
    Standard pressure \(P^\circ=1\ \mathrm{bar}=10^5\ \mathrm{Pa}\)
    Ionic product of water at \(25\,^\circ\mathrm C\) \(K_w=1.00\times10^{-14}\)
    Zero of the Celsius scale \(0\,^\circ\mathrm C=273.15\ \mathrm K\)
    Electronvolt \(1\ \mathrm{eV}=1.602\times10^{-19}\ \mathrm J\)
    Watt \(1\ \mathrm W=1\ \mathrm{J\,s^{-1}}\)
    Coulomb \(1\ \mathrm C=1\ \mathrm{A\,s}\)
    Nanometre \(1\ \mathrm{nm}=1\times10^{-9}\ \mathrm m\)
    Ångstrom \(1\ \text{Å}=1\times10^{-10}\ \mathrm m\)
    metric ton \(1\ \mathrm{ton}=1000\ \mathrm{kg}\)
    litre \(1\ \mathrm L=1\ \mathrm{dm^3}\)

    Official English text of the problem.

  7. Problem 7: Nitrogen Fixation

    T7. Nitrogen Fixation

    7%

    7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 \(\sum\)
    3 8 15 3 6 6 13 54

    The Haber–Bosch process is the principal industrial method for ammonia production. A simplified diagram of an ammonia synthesis plant is shown below.

    Figure 1

    Fig. 1. M1 - Mixture 1, M2 - Mixture 2, Z – \(\ce{CO2}\) scrubber, CLR - cooler

    In the following calculations, assume that all reactions in Fig. 1, except \(\ce{NH3}\) formation, are quantitative.

    7.1 Tick the gases contained in M1 and M2; and tick the correct relationship between \(x\) and \(y\). 3.0 pt

    Figure 2
    Figure 3

    An ammonia production complex with a capacity of 660,000 tons per year was commissioned at the Navoiazot plant in Uzbekistan, which operates with a 97.0% of overall yield.

    7.2 Calculate the mass of \(\ce{CH4}\) (tons) required annually to produce 660,000 tons of ammonia, if the Navoiazot operates according to the Fig. 1. 8.0 pt

    Consider a model of a real reaction system, which includes recirculation of reagents. An open system operates in a cyclic mode. Each cycle consists of four steps:

    1. A stoichiometric \(\ce{N2}:\ce{H2}=1:3\) mixture with a total amount of \(n_0\) mol is fed into the reactor after each cycle.
    2. The reaction proceeds with a constant yield of \(\eta=0.150\).
    3. Ammonia is separated by liquification.
    4. Unreacted gases are returned into the reactor.

    The cycle is repeated until the required overall yield is reached.

    Figure 4

    Fig. 2. M2. – Mixture 2, CLR - cooler.

    7.3
    a) Calculate the amount of nitrogen, present in the system after the 58th cycle (before the addition of 59th portion of mixture), if \(n_0=4\) mol. Provide 4 decimal places. Hint: a formula for the sum of the terms of a geometric progression is needed.
    b) Calculate the number of cycles needed to increase the overall yield from 15.0% to 97.0%. 15.0 pt

    An aqueous solution of 3 is being used to remove \(\ce{CO2}\) from the mixture.

    Figure 5

    7.4 Write the equation for this reaction. 3.0 pt

    Complex 5 is obtained through the fixation of the molecular nitrogen according to the scheme below.

    Figure 6

    7.5 Draw the structure of 5 using simplified scheme for the ligand. Note that 1.00 g of 4 will react stoichiometrically with 94.97 \(\mathrm{cm^3}\) of \(\ce{N2}\) at 273.15 K and 1.0 bar. 6.0 pt

    The effect of different reductants and additives on the yield of \(\ce{NH3}\) was examined. The different Red and Ad combinations, their respective \(E^\circ\) and \(pK_a\), together with the resulting \(\ce{NH3}\) yield are presented below.

    Red

    Figure 7

    Ad

    Figure 8
    # 1 2 3 4
    \(E^\circ\) (V) −0.88 −1.15 −1.15 −1.15
    \(pK_a\) 14.4 14.4 13.9 14.4
    \(\ce{NH3}\) yield (mole) 0 0.7 9.1 11.8

    7.6 Rank the following Red/Ad combinations A-D by the decrease in ammonia yield. 6.0 pt

    Red

    Figure 9

    Ad

    Figure 10
    # A B C D
    \(E^\circ\) (V) −0.09 −1.10 −1.10 −1.10
    \(pK_a\) 13.7 15.0 13.7 10.6

    Nitrogen fixation can also be achieved via binary nitrides (compounds containing \(\ce{N^3-}\)). Such nitrides 7, 8, 9 were obtained from pure elements. When they are heated together with \(\ce{SiO2}\), red crystals of a stable compound 10 are formed as the single product. The minimal possible formula, describing the structure of compound 10 is \(\ce{Q_{\alpha}R_{\beta}S2T[Si12N24]}\). In addition:

    1. Mass fractions of nitrogen are \(w(\ce{N})_7=9.16\%\), \(w(\ce{N})_8=18.90\%\), \(w(\ce{N})_9=39.94\%\)
    2. Q and R are metal cations in their highest oxidation state.
    3. S is a monoatomic anion.
    4. T is an anion with tetrahedral configuration.
    5. For the quantitative formation of 10, the mass ratio 7 : 8 : 9 : \(\ce{SiO2}\) = 5.09 : 2.96 : 3.27 : 1.00.

    7.7 Identify the empirical formulae of 7–10. Specify the composition of anions S and T. 13.0 pt

    Physical Constants and Equations

    Constants

    Constant Value
    Avogadro constant \(N_A=6.022\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}\)
    Universal gas constant \(R=8.314\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}\)
    Faraday constant \(F=96\,485\ \mathrm{C\,mol^{-1}}\)
    Planck constant \(h=6.626\times10^{-34}\ \mathrm{J\,s}\)
    Speed of light in vacuum \(c=2.998\times10^8\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\)
    Mass of electron \(m_e=9.109\times10^{-31}\ \mathrm{kg}\)
    Charge of electron \(e=1.602\times10^{-19}\ \mathrm{C}\)
    Standard pressure \(P^\circ=1\ \mathrm{bar}=10^5\ \mathrm{Pa}\)
    Ionic product of water at \(25\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\) \(K_w=1.00\times10^{-14}\)
    Zero of the Celsius scale \(0\,^\circ\mathrm{C}=273.15\ \mathrm{K}\)
    Electronvolt \(1\ \mathrm{eV}=1.602\times10^{-19}\ \mathrm{J}\)
    Watt \(1\ \mathrm{W}=1\ \mathrm{J\,s^{-1}}\)
    Coulomb \(1\ \mathrm{C}=1\ \mathrm{A\,s}\)
    Nanometre \(1\ \mathrm{nm}=1\times10^{-9}\ \mathrm{m}\)
    Ångstrom \(1\ \text{Å}=1\times10^{-10}\ \mathrm{m}\)
    metric ton \(1\ \mathrm{ton}=1000\ \mathrm{kg}\)
    litre \(1\ \mathrm{L}=1\ \mathrm{dm^3}\)

    Equations

    Equation Expression
    Ideal gas law \(PV=nRT\)
    Dalton law \(P_i=x_iP\)
    Beer–Lambert law \(A=\log_{10}\dfrac{I_0}{I}=\varepsilon cl\)
    Energy of a photon \(E=h\nu=\dfrac{hc}{\lambda}\)
    Heat and temperature change \(Q=nC_m\Delta T\)
    Gibbs energy definition \(G=H-TS\)
    Gibbs energy and equilibrium constant \(\Delta_rG^\circ=-RT\ln K\)
    Enthalpy change dependence on temperature (at \(\Delta_rC_p=\mathrm{const}\)) \(\Delta_rH_{T_2}=\Delta_rH_{T_1}+\Delta_rC_p(T_2-T_1)\)
    Entropy change dependence on temperature (at \(\Delta_rC_p=\mathrm{const}\)) \(\Delta_rS_{T_2}=\Delta_rS_{T_1}+\Delta_rC_p\ln\dfrac{T_2}{T_1}\)
    Henderson–Hasselbalch equation \(pH=pK_a+\log_{10}\dfrac{[\ce{A-}]}{[\ce{HA}]}\)
    Average reaction rate \(r=\dfrac{\Delta c}{\Delta t}\)
    The rate law \(r=k[A]^x[B]^y\)
    Arrhenius law \(k=A\exp\left(-\dfrac{E_a}{RT}\right)\)
    Integrated rate law for a 1st order reaction \(c=c_0e^{-kt}\); \(kt=\ln\dfrac{c_0}{c}\)
    Lifetime of a reagent in a 1st order reaction \(\tau=\dfrac1k\)
    Integrated rate law for n-th order reaction (\(n\ne1\)) \(kt=\dfrac1{n-1}\left(c^{1-n}-c_0^{1-n}\right)\), for \(n\ne1\)
    Concentration of an intermediate in a consecutive reaction: \(\ce{A ->[$k_1$] B ->[$k_2$] D}\) \([B]=\dfrac{k_1[A]_0}{k_2-k_1}\left(e^{-k_1t}-e^{-k_2t}\right)\)
    The ratio of products in the competitive reactions: \(\ce{A ->[$k_1$] B}\), \(\ce{A ->[$k_2$] C}\) \(\dfrac{[B]}{[C]}=\dfrac{k_1}{k_2}\)
    Michaelis–Menten equation \(r_0=r_{\max}\dfrac{[S]_0}{K_M+[S]_0}\)
    Specific surface area \(s=\dfrac{S}{m}\)
    Progressions: arithmetic geometric \(a_n=a_1+d(n-1)\); \(a_n=a_1q^{n-1}\)
    Sum of geometric progression \(\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a_1q^k=a_1\dfrac{q^{n+1}-1}{q-1}\)
    Volume of a sphere with radius \(r\) \(V=\dfrac43\pi r^3\)
    Surface area of sphere with radius \(r\) \(S=4\pi r^2\)
    Volume of a cone with base radius \(r\) and height \(h\) \(V=\dfrac13\pi r^2h\)
    Volume of a cylinder with base radius \(r\) and height \(h\) \(V=\pi r^2h\)

    Consider all gases ideal.

    In equilibrium constant calculations, all concentrations are referenced to the concentration of \(1\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}\).

    Periodic Table of Elements

    Figure 11

    Official English text of the problem.

  8. Problem 8: Recycling of Carbon Dioxide

    T8. Recycling of Carbon Dioxide

    7%

    8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 \(\sum\)
    2 16 2 29 5 10 2 4 12 2 84

    Removing \(\ce{CO2}\) gas from the atmosphere is key to combat climate change. One promising solution is the photocatalytic reduction of \(\ce{CO2}\) to \(\ce{CO}\) using molecular catalyst 1.

    Figure 1

    8.1 Write the half equation for the reduction of \(\ce{CO2}\) to \(\ce{CO}\) in an acidic medium. 2.0 pt

    The conjugate oxidation reaction occurs with sacrificial reductant 2 in aqueous solution with the following mechanism:

    Figure 2

    Species 3, 4, and 5 are short-lived ionic and/or radical intermediates. 7 yields a silver mirror with the \(\ce{[Ag(NH3)2]OH}\) test.

    8.2 Draw the structures of 3-7. 16.0 pt

    Catalyst 1 can be synthesised with the following reaction.

    Figure 3

    8.3 Tick the correct geometry for the structure of 1. 2.0 pt

    Figure 4

    When 1 is loaded on crystalline carbon nitride (\(\ce{C3N4}\)) support material, it can reduce \(\ce{CO2}\) via the following mechanism.

    Figure 5

    8.4 Draw the structures of 9-15. Use the cartoon structure for ligand 8 shown above. For 9-15, specify the oxidation state, \(OS\), coordination number, \(CN\), and number of valence electrons, \(VE\), of \(\ce{Fe}\), along with the total charge of corresponding complex structures, \(Z\). Note: Some information is provided on the answer sheet. 29.0 pt

    Figure 6
    Figure 7

    8.5 Calculate the number of catalytic molecules per \(\mathrm{nm^2}\), \(N_{\mathrm{cat}}\), of \(\ce{C3N4}\) loaded with 1, when the mass fraction of catalyst, \(\omega_{\mathrm{cat}}=3.8\%\), if the specific surface area of \(\ce{C3N4}\) is \(17.8\ \mathrm{m^2\,g^{-1}}\). \(M_{\mathrm{cat}}=557.21\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\). 5.0 pt

    The Turnover Frequency of a catalyst (TOF) is the number of product molecules formed per active catalyst molecule per hour. Under LED illumination (\(\lambda=390\ \mathrm{nm}\)) with power of \(50\ \mathrm{mW}\), there was a TOF of \(8\ \mathrm{h^{-1}}\) for \(10\ \mathrm{mg}\) of \(\ce{C3N4}\), loaded with 1 with \(\omega_{\mathrm{cat}}=3.8\%\)

    The formula for calculating the quantum yield is given below:

    \[ \varphi= \frac{\textit{number of reacted electrons}} {\textit{number of incident photons}}\cdot100\% \]

    8.6 Calculate the quantum yield, \(\varphi(\%)\), for \(\ce{CO}\) formation. 10.0 pt

    The diagram below shows the change in the TOF of \(\ce{CO}\) as \(\omega_{\mathrm{cat}}\) is varied.

    Figure 8

    8.7 How does the overall rate of \(\ce{CO}\) formation per gram of \(\ce{C3N4}\) loaded with 1 change with increasing \(\omega_{\mathrm{cat}}\), within the range \(0.1\leq\omega_{\mathrm{cat}}\leq2.9\)? Tick the correct box. 2.0 pt

    a) increases
    b) decreases
    c) doesn't change

    The reduction of \(\ce{CO2}\) can be accompanied by the reduction of additional protons. The changes in Gibbs energy during these two reactions are shown in the diagram.

    Figure 9

    The system was irradiated using different LEDs. The diagram below shows the mole percentages, \(\chi\), of \(\ce{H2}\) and \(\ce{CO}\) produced during the reduction of \(\ce{CO2}\) under four different conditions: no irradiation (N) and irradiation with red (R), green (G), and blue (B) light.

    Figure 10

    8.8 Tick which of the four conditions, mentioned above, corresponds to a, b, c and d in the diagram. 4.0 pt

    Photosensitisers (PS) offer some advantages over \(\ce{C3N4}\) for the reduction of \(\ce{CO2}\). Mn(I)-containing complexes combined with PS can achieve ~23% quantum yield. In this system, reductive quenching of the singlet (\(\mathbf{S}_1\)) and triplet (\(\mathbf{T}_1\)) excited states of a PS by reductant (Red) forms \(\ce{PS^{\bullet-}}\), which donates electrons to \(\ce{CO2}\) through the Mn(I)-containing complex.

    Figure 11

    The following Jablonski diagram describes the processes occurring in the PS:

    Figure 12

    \(\tau_0(\mathbf{S}_1)=2.9\ \mathrm{ns}\) and \(\tau_0(\mathbf{T}_1)=84\ \mathrm{\mu s}\), where \(\tau_0\) is the emission lifetime in the absence of the quencher.

    8.9 Calculate the percentage of quenching, \(\eta_q\), (in %) of S₁ and T₁ states, when \([\mathrm{Red}]=0.1\ \mathrm{M}\). Note: here the values of \(k_{\mathrm{ISC}}\) and \(k_{\mathrm{RISC}}\) are negligible. 12.0 pt

    8.10 How do the emission lifetimes of S₁ and T₁ states change when \([\mathrm{Red}]\) increases?
    Tick the correct box. 2.0 pt

    a) increases
    b) decreases
    c) doesn't change

    Physical Constants and Equations

    Constants

    Constant Value
    Avogadro constant \(N_A=6.022\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}\)
    Universal gas constant \(R=8.314\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}\)
    Faraday constant \(F=96\,485\ \mathrm{C\,mol^{-1}}\)
    Planck constant \(h=6.626\times10^{-34}\ \mathrm{J\,s}\)
    Speed of light in vacuum \(c=2.998\times10^8\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\)
    Mass of electron \(m_e=9.109\times10^{-31}\ \mathrm{kg}\)
    Charge of electron \(e=1.602\times10^{-19}\ \mathrm{C}\)
    Standard pressure \(P^\circ=1\ \mathrm{bar}=10^5\ \mathrm{Pa}\)
    Ionic product of water at \(25\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\) \(K_w=1.00\times10^{-14}\)
    Zero of the Celsius scale \(0\,^\circ\mathrm{C}=273.15\ \mathrm{K}\)
    Electronvolt \(1\ \mathrm{eV}=1.602\times10^{-19}\ \mathrm{J}\)
    Watt \(1\ \mathrm{W}=1\ \mathrm{J\,s^{-1}}\)
    Coulomb \(1\ \mathrm{C}=1\ \mathrm{A\,s}\)
    Nanometre \(1\ \mathrm{nm}=1\times10^{-9}\ \mathrm{m}\)
    Ångstrom \(1\ \text{Å}=1\times10^{-10}\ \mathrm{m}\)
    metric ton \(1\ \mathrm{ton}=1000\ \mathrm{kg}\)
    litre \(1\ \mathrm{L}=1\ \mathrm{dm^3}\)

    Equations

    Equation Expression
    Ideal gas law \(PV=nRT\)
    Dalton law \(P_i=x_iP\)
    Beer–Lambert law \(A=\log_{10}\dfrac{I_0}{I}=\varepsilon cl\)
    Energy of a photon \(E=h\nu=\dfrac{hc}{\lambda}\)
    Heat and temperature change \(Q=nC_m\Delta T\)
    Gibbs energy definition \(G=H-TS\)
    Gibbs energy and equilibrium constant \(\Delta_rG^\circ=-RT\ln K\)
    Enthalpy change dependence on temperature (at \(\Delta_rC_p=const\)) \(\Delta_rH_{T_2}=\Delta_rH_{T_1}+\Delta_rC_p(T_2-T_1)\)
    Entropy change dependence on temperature (at \(\Delta_rC_p=const\)) \(\Delta_rS_{T_2}=\Delta_rS_{T_1}+\Delta_rC_p\ln\dfrac{T_2}{T_1}\)
    Henderson–Hasselbalch equation \(\mathrm{pH}=\mathrm{p}K_a+\log_{10}\dfrac{[\ce{A-}]}{[\ce{HA}]}\)
    Average reaction rate \(r=\dfrac{\Delta c}{\Delta t}\)
    The rate law \(r=k[A]^x[B]^y\)
    Arrhenius law \(k=A\exp\left(-\dfrac{E_a}{RT}\right)\)
    Integrated rate law for a 1st order reaction \(c=c_0e^{-kt}\), \(kt=\ln\dfrac{c_0}{c}\)
    Lifetime of a reagent in a 1st order reaction \(\tau=\dfrac1k\)
    Integrated rate law for n-th order reaction (\(n\neq1\)) \(kt=\dfrac{1}{n-1}\left(c^{1-n}-c_0^{1-n}\right)\) for \(n\neq1\)
    Concentration of an intermediate in a consecutive reaction: \(\ce{A ->[k_1] B ->[k_2] D}\) \([B]=\dfrac{k_1[A]_0}{k_2-k_1}\left(e^{-k_1t}-e^{-k_2t}\right)\)
    The ratio of products in the competitive reactions: \(\ce{A ->[k_1] B}\), \(\ce{A ->[k_2] C}\) \(\dfrac{[B]}{[C]}=\dfrac{k_1}{k_2}\)
    Michaelis–Menten equation \(r_0=r_{\max}\dfrac{[S]_0}{K_M+[S]_0}\)
    Specific surface area \(s=\dfrac{S}{m}\)
    Progressions: arithmetic geometric \(a_n=a_1+d(n-1)\), \(a_n=a_1q^{n-1}\)
    Sum of geometric progression \(\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a_1q^k=a_1\dfrac{q^{n+1}-1}{q-1}\)
    Volume of a sphere with radius \(r\) \(V=\dfrac43\pi r^3\)
    Surface area of sphere with radius \(r\) \(S=4\pi r^2\)
    Volume of a cone with base radius \(r\) and height \(h\) \(V=\dfrac13\pi r^2h\)
    Volume of a cylinder with base radius \(r\) and height \(h\) \(V=\pi r^2h\)

    Consider all gases ideal.

    In equilibrium constant calculations, all concentrations are referenced to the concentration of \(1\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}\).

    Official English text of the problem.

  9. Problem 9: Cyclodextrin Chemistry

    T9. Cyclodextrin Chemistry

    7%

    9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 \(\sum\)
    2 6 8 3 2 4 6 18 4 53

    Cyclodextrins (CD) are a family of cyclic oligosaccharides, consisting of glucose subunits joined by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds. The three most common cyclodextrins (α-, β-, γ-cyclodextrin) contain 6, 7, and 8 α-D-glucopyranoside units, respectively.

    9.1 Calculate the molar mass of β-CD. Assume \(M_w(\text{glucose})=180.16\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\). 2.0 pt

    Figure 1

    CDs combine macrocyclic properties with glucose chemistry, which was demonstrated in the synthesis of X. Primary and secondary hydroxy groups show different reactivity due to being a part of CDs. Stoddart et al. synthesised compound K, where only one OH group remained free per glucopyranoside unit.

    Figure 2

    equiv.= equivalent

    9.2 Tick the favorable chair conformation and draw the structure of K by completing the CD template. Show stereochemistry unambiguously. 6.0 pt

    Figure 3

    9.3 Determine the ring size, \(rs\), of macrocycle X. Give the number of stereocentres, \(sc\), in X. 8.0 pt

    α-Cycloaltrin, a synthetic analogue of α-CD, was synthesised as follows.

    Figure 4

    9.4 Draw the structure of Y with stereochemistry by completing the CD template. 3.0 pt

    Figure 5

    In 2000, Sinay et al. demonstrated that a single protic group (NH and OH) at unit 1 directs the next reductive debenzylation of a primary OH group to unit 4 in the macrocyclic ring (or to unit 3 if the unit 4 position is not available). This allowed the synthesis of the following β-CD dimer as a mixture of constitutional linkage isomers.

    Figure 6

    9.5 Draw the structure of L on the β-CD template. Fill in all the boxes. 2.0 pt

    Figure 7

    9.6 Determine the number of isomers of the β-CD dimer that can form during the synthesis by Sinay et. al. 4.0 pt

    To confirm the positions of debenzylation, L was subjected to the “hexo-5-enose degradation” reaction, as shown below. The products were then analysed by mass spectrometry.

    Figure 8

    9.7 Calculate the \(m/z\) value for the two \(\ce{[M+Na]+}\) peaks that were observed for the degradation products from L. Use integer values of atomic mass. 6.0 pt

    Later, Sollogoub et al. applied the ability of alkenes to direct the debenzylation to the “ortho”-glucopyranose unit for the synthesis of hexadifferentiated α-CD S:

    Figure 9

    9.8 Draw the structures of O–S on the α-CD templates. Fill in all the boxes. You may draw structures outside the boxes if appropriate. Assume 1,2-unit modification happens clockwise, while 1,3-unit modification happens counterclockwise. Protic groups have stronger directing effects than alkenes. 18.0 pt

    Figure 10
    Figure 11

    9.9 Determine the number of all possible arrangements of the functional groups on a hexadifferentiated α-CD (assume only the \(\ce{CH2OH}\) groups have been modified). 4.0 pt

    Periodic Table of Elements

    Figure 12

    Official English text of the problem.