IChO 2026 · Theory problem 8

Recycling of Carbon Dioxide

T8. Recycling of Carbon Dioxide

7%

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 \(\sum\)
2 16 2 29 5 10 2 4 12 2 84

Removing \(\ce{CO2}\) gas from the atmosphere is key to combat climate change. One promising solution is the photocatalytic reduction of \(\ce{CO2}\) to \(\ce{CO}\) using molecular catalyst 1.

Figure 1

8.1 Write the half equation for the reduction of \(\ce{CO2}\) to \(\ce{CO}\) in an acidic medium. 2.0 pt

The conjugate oxidation reaction occurs with sacrificial reductant 2 in aqueous solution with the following mechanism:

Figure 2

Species 3, 4, and 5 are short-lived ionic and/or radical intermediates. 7 yields a silver mirror with the \(\ce{[Ag(NH3)2]OH}\) test.

8.2 Draw the structures of 3-7. 16.0 pt

Catalyst 1 can be synthesised with the following reaction.

Figure 3

8.3 Tick the correct geometry for the structure of 1. 2.0 pt

Figure 4

When 1 is loaded on crystalline carbon nitride (\(\ce{C3N4}\)) support material, it can reduce \(\ce{CO2}\) via the following mechanism.

Figure 5

8.4 Draw the structures of 9-15. Use the cartoon structure for ligand 8 shown above. For 9-15, specify the oxidation state, \(OS\), coordination number, \(CN\), and number of valence electrons, \(VE\), of \(\ce{Fe}\), along with the total charge of corresponding complex structures, \(Z\). Note: Some information is provided on the answer sheet. 29.0 pt

Figure 6
Figure 7

8.5 Calculate the number of catalytic molecules per \(\mathrm{nm^2}\), \(N_{\mathrm{cat}}\), of \(\ce{C3N4}\) loaded with 1, when the mass fraction of catalyst, \(\omega_{\mathrm{cat}}=3.8\%\), if the specific surface area of \(\ce{C3N4}\) is \(17.8\ \mathrm{m^2\,g^{-1}}\). \(M_{\mathrm{cat}}=557.21\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\). 5.0 pt

The Turnover Frequency of a catalyst (TOF) is the number of product molecules formed per active catalyst molecule per hour. Under LED illumination (\(\lambda=390\ \mathrm{nm}\)) with power of \(50\ \mathrm{mW}\), there was a TOF of \(8\ \mathrm{h^{-1}}\) for \(10\ \mathrm{mg}\) of \(\ce{C3N4}\), loaded with 1 with \(\omega_{\mathrm{cat}}=3.8\%\)

The formula for calculating the quantum yield is given below:

\[ \varphi= \frac{\textit{number of reacted electrons}} {\textit{number of incident photons}}\cdot100\% \]

8.6 Calculate the quantum yield, \(\varphi(\%)\), for \(\ce{CO}\) formation. 10.0 pt

The diagram below shows the change in the TOF of \(\ce{CO}\) as \(\omega_{\mathrm{cat}}\) is varied.

Figure 8

8.7 How does the overall rate of \(\ce{CO}\) formation per gram of \(\ce{C3N4}\) loaded with 1 change with increasing \(\omega_{\mathrm{cat}}\), within the range \(0.1\leq\omega_{\mathrm{cat}}\leq2.9\)? Tick the correct box. 2.0 pt

a) increases
b) decreases
c) doesn't change

The reduction of \(\ce{CO2}\) can be accompanied by the reduction of additional protons. The changes in Gibbs energy during these two reactions are shown in the diagram.

Figure 9

The system was irradiated using different LEDs. The diagram below shows the mole percentages, \(\chi\), of \(\ce{H2}\) and \(\ce{CO}\) produced during the reduction of \(\ce{CO2}\) under four different conditions: no irradiation (N) and irradiation with red (R), green (G), and blue (B) light.

Figure 10

8.8 Tick which of the four conditions, mentioned above, corresponds to a, b, c and d in the diagram. 4.0 pt

Photosensitisers (PS) offer some advantages over \(\ce{C3N4}\) for the reduction of \(\ce{CO2}\). Mn(I)-containing complexes combined with PS can achieve ~23% quantum yield. In this system, reductive quenching of the singlet (\(\mathbf{S}_1\)) and triplet (\(\mathbf{T}_1\)) excited states of a PS by reductant (Red) forms \(\ce{PS^{\bullet-}}\), which donates electrons to \(\ce{CO2}\) through the Mn(I)-containing complex.

Figure 11

The following Jablonski diagram describes the processes occurring in the PS:

Figure 12

\(\tau_0(\mathbf{S}_1)=2.9\ \mathrm{ns}\) and \(\tau_0(\mathbf{T}_1)=84\ \mathrm{\mu s}\), where \(\tau_0\) is the emission lifetime in the absence of the quencher.

8.9 Calculate the percentage of quenching, \(\eta_q\), (in %) of S₁ and T₁ states, when \([\mathrm{Red}]=0.1\ \mathrm{M}\). Note: here the values of \(k_{\mathrm{ISC}}\) and \(k_{\mathrm{RISC}}\) are negligible. 12.0 pt

8.10 How do the emission lifetimes of S₁ and T₁ states change when \([\mathrm{Red}]\) increases?
Tick the correct box. 2.0 pt

a) increases
b) decreases
c) doesn't change

Physical Constants and Equations

Constants

Constant Value
Avogadro constant \(N_A=6.022\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}\)
Universal gas constant \(R=8.314\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}\)
Faraday constant \(F=96\,485\ \mathrm{C\,mol^{-1}}\)
Planck constant \(h=6.626\times10^{-34}\ \mathrm{J\,s}\)
Speed of light in vacuum \(c=2.998\times10^8\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\)
Mass of electron \(m_e=9.109\times10^{-31}\ \mathrm{kg}\)
Charge of electron \(e=1.602\times10^{-19}\ \mathrm{C}\)
Standard pressure \(P^\circ=1\ \mathrm{bar}=10^5\ \mathrm{Pa}\)
Ionic product of water at \(25\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\) \(K_w=1.00\times10^{-14}\)
Zero of the Celsius scale \(0\,^\circ\mathrm{C}=273.15\ \mathrm{K}\)
Electronvolt \(1\ \mathrm{eV}=1.602\times10^{-19}\ \mathrm{J}\)
Watt \(1\ \mathrm{W}=1\ \mathrm{J\,s^{-1}}\)
Coulomb \(1\ \mathrm{C}=1\ \mathrm{A\,s}\)
Nanometre \(1\ \mathrm{nm}=1\times10^{-9}\ \mathrm{m}\)
Ångstrom \(1\ \text{Å}=1\times10^{-10}\ \mathrm{m}\)
metric ton \(1\ \mathrm{ton}=1000\ \mathrm{kg}\)
litre \(1\ \mathrm{L}=1\ \mathrm{dm^3}\)

Equations

Equation Expression
Ideal gas law \(PV=nRT\)
Dalton law \(P_i=x_iP\)
Beer–Lambert law \(A=\log_{10}\dfrac{I_0}{I}=\varepsilon cl\)
Energy of a photon \(E=h\nu=\dfrac{hc}{\lambda}\)
Heat and temperature change \(Q=nC_m\Delta T\)
Gibbs energy definition \(G=H-TS\)
Gibbs energy and equilibrium constant \(\Delta_rG^\circ=-RT\ln K\)
Enthalpy change dependence on temperature (at \(\Delta_rC_p=const\)) \(\Delta_rH_{T_2}=\Delta_rH_{T_1}+\Delta_rC_p(T_2-T_1)\)
Entropy change dependence on temperature (at \(\Delta_rC_p=const\)) \(\Delta_rS_{T_2}=\Delta_rS_{T_1}+\Delta_rC_p\ln\dfrac{T_2}{T_1}\)
Henderson–Hasselbalch equation \(\mathrm{pH}=\mathrm{p}K_a+\log_{10}\dfrac{[\ce{A-}]}{[\ce{HA}]}\)
Average reaction rate \(r=\dfrac{\Delta c}{\Delta t}\)
The rate law \(r=k[A]^x[B]^y\)
Arrhenius law \(k=A\exp\left(-\dfrac{E_a}{RT}\right)\)
Integrated rate law for a 1st order reaction \(c=c_0e^{-kt}\), \(kt=\ln\dfrac{c_0}{c}\)
Lifetime of a reagent in a 1st order reaction \(\tau=\dfrac1k\)
Integrated rate law for n-th order reaction (\(n\neq1\)) \(kt=\dfrac{1}{n-1}\left(c^{1-n}-c_0^{1-n}\right)\) for \(n\neq1\)
Concentration of an intermediate in a consecutive reaction: \(\ce{A ->[k_1] B ->[k_2] D}\) \([B]=\dfrac{k_1[A]_0}{k_2-k_1}\left(e^{-k_1t}-e^{-k_2t}\right)\)
The ratio of products in the competitive reactions: \(\ce{A ->[k_1] B}\), \(\ce{A ->[k_2] C}\) \(\dfrac{[B]}{[C]}=\dfrac{k_1}{k_2}\)
Michaelis–Menten equation \(r_0=r_{\max}\dfrac{[S]_0}{K_M+[S]_0}\)
Specific surface area \(s=\dfrac{S}{m}\)
Progressions: arithmetic geometric \(a_n=a_1+d(n-1)\), \(a_n=a_1q^{n-1}\)
Sum of geometric progression \(\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a_1q^k=a_1\dfrac{q^{n+1}-1}{q-1}\)
Volume of a sphere with radius \(r\) \(V=\dfrac43\pi r^3\)
Surface area of sphere with radius \(r\) \(S=4\pi r^2\)
Volume of a cone with base radius \(r\) and height \(h\) \(V=\dfrac13\pi r^2h\)
Volume of a cylinder with base radius \(r\) and height \(h\) \(V=\pi r^2h\)

Consider all gases ideal.

In equilibrium constant calculations, all concentrations are referenced to the concentration of \(1\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}\).

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 8.1. \[ \boxed{\ce{CO2 + 2H+ + 2e- -> CO + H2O}} \]

  • 8.2.

Species Identification SMILES
3 Triethanolamine radical cation; radical and positive charge on nitrogen [N+](CCO)(CCO)CCO
4 Triethanolamine-derived α-amino carbon radical OCCN(CCO)[CH]CO
5 N,N-Bis(2-hydroxyethyl)-2-hydroxyethaniminium ion [N+](CCO)(CCO)=CCO
6 Diethanolamine OCCNCCO
7 Glycolaldehyde, or 2-hydroxyethanal OCC=O
  • 8.3. Tick the bottom-right, seventh structure: octahedral trans-dichlorido(L)iron(II), with four nitrogen donors in the equatorial plane and two mutually trans chlorido ligands. Here \(L\) is ligand 8.

  • 8.4. All four nitrogen atoms of neutral \(L\) remain coordinated. Full coordination SMILES and drawing descriptions are given in the Solution.

Species Structure and binding mode \(OS\) \(CN\) \(VE\) \(Z\)
9 \(\ce{[Fe(L)(H2O)2]^2+}\) \(+2\) 6 18 \(+2\)
10 \(\ce{[Fe(L)(H2O)]^+}\) \(+1\) 5 17 \(+1\)
11 \(\ce{[Fe(L)(CO2)]^+}\); C,O-bound \(\ce{CO2^2-}\), forming an Fe–C–O ring \(+3\) 6 17 \(+1\)
12 \(\ce{[Fe(L)(COOH)]^+}\); carbon-bound hydroxycarbonyl \(+2\) 5 16 \(+1\)
13 \(\ce{[Fe(L)(COOH)(H2O)]^+}\); carbon-bound hydroxycarbonyl \(+2\) 6 18 \(+1\)
14 \(\ce{[Fe(L)(CO)(H2O)]^2+}\); carbon-bound carbonyl \(+2\) 6 18 \(+2\)
15 \(\ce{[Fe(L)(H2O)]^2+}\) \(+2\) 5 16 \(+2\)
  • 8.5. \(\boxed{N_{\mathrm{cat}}\approx2.40\ \text{molecules}\,\mathrm{nm^{-2}}}\), treating \(3.8\%\) as the mass fraction in the composite and \(17.8\ \mathrm{m^2\,g^{-1}}\) as the area per gram of bare support. If the surface area is instead per gram of loaded material, the result is \(2.31\ \text{molecules}\,\mathrm{nm^{-2}}\).

  • 8.6. \(\boxed{\varphi\approx1.93\%}\) for \(10\ \mathrm{mg}\) of bare support. If \(10\ \mathrm{mg}\) denotes the total loaded material, \(\boxed{\varphi\approx1.86\%}\). Both are approximately \(1.9\%\).

  • 8.7. \(\boxed{\text{a) increases}}\).

  • 8.8. \(\boxed{\mathrm{a=N,\quad b=B,\quad c=G,\quad d=R}}\).

  • 8.9. \[ \boxed{\eta_q(\mathrm{S}_1)=43.9\%,\qquad \eta_q(\mathrm{T}_1)=99.92\%} \]

  • 8.10. \(\boxed{\text{b) decreases}}\) for both states.

Solution

8.1 — Reduction half-equation

Carbon changes from oxidation state \(+4\) in carbon dioxide to \(+2\) in carbon monoxide, so two electrons are required. Balancing oxygen with water and hydrogen with protons gives

\[ \boxed{\ce{CO2 + 2H+ + 2e- -> CO + H2O}}. \]

Both atoms and charge are balanced.

The small molecular species used throughout the solution are carbon dioxide O=C=O, carbon monoxide [C-]#[O+], water O, dihydrogen [H][H], the proton [H+], and chloride [Cl-].

8.2 — Oxidation of the sacrificial reductant

Compound 2 is triethanolamine, OCCN(CCO)CCO. Write \(R\) for a 2-hydroxyethyl group, \(\ce{-CH2CH2OH}\), so 2 is \(\ce{R3N}\).

The first oxidation removes one electron from the nitrogen lone pair:

\[ \ce{R3N -> [R3N]^{\bullet+} + e-}. \]

Thus 3 is the nitrogen-centred radical cation given in the Answers.

Deprotonation occurs at a carbon directly attached to nitrogen. All three arms are equivalent, so choosing any one gives the same constitutional intermediate:

\[ \ce{[R3N]^{\bullet+} -> R2N-CH^{\bullet}-CH2OH + H+}. \]

This produces 4, with the unpaired electron on the α-carbon. Loss of a second electron gives the iminium ion 5:

\[ \ce{R2N-CH^{\bullet}-CH2OH -> [R2N=CH-CH2OH]+ + e-}. \]

Water attacks the electrophilic iminium carbon. Proton transfer and cleavage of its carbon–nitrogen bond give the secondary amine 6 and aldehyde 7:

\[ \ce{[R2N=CH-CH2OH]+ + H2O -> R2NH + HOCH2CHO + H+}. \]

Therefore 6 is diethanolamine and 7 is glycolaldehyde. The aldehyde group of 7 accounts for its positive silver-mirror test.

The overall oxidation half-equation is

\[ \boxed{\ce{ N(CH2CH2OH)3 + H2O -> HN(CH2CH2OH)2 + HOCH2CHO + 2H+ + 2e- }}. \]

For the requested drawings, show the nitrogen radical cation in 3, the α-carbon radical in 4, and the positively charged nitrogen–carbon double bond in 5. The SMILES in the Answers specify their connectivity and radical locations.

8.3 — Geometry of catalyst 1

Ligand 8, denoted \(L\), is 4-(4-carboxyphenyl)-2,2′:6′,2″:6″,2‴-quaterpyridine. Its SMILES is

O=C(O)c1ccc(-c2ccnc(-c3cccc(-c4cccc(-c5ccccn5)n4)n3)c2)cc1

Its four pyridine nitrogen atoms provide four neutral donor sites. Together with two chlorido ligands, they give an iron coordination number of six. The quaterpyridine donor arrangement places the four nitrogen atoms around the equatorial plane, leaving the two axial sites for mutually trans chlorido ligands.

Therefore 1 is trans-dichlorido(L)iron(II), and the correct choice is the bottom-right structure.

Coordination SMILES:

[Cl-]->[Fe+2]6789<-[Cl-].O=C(O)c1ccc(-c2ccn->6c(-c3cccc(-c4cccc(-c5ccccn5->7)n4->8)n3->9)c2)cc1

The coordination SMILES used here and below employ dative bonds, -> and <-. Matching ring numbers connect the ligand to iron across the dot. These strings specify connectivity and formal charges; the coordination geometry is specified in words.

8.4 — Catalytic intermediates and electron counting

The pendant carboxylic acid group of \(L\) remains unchanged, so \(L\) is neutral and donates \(4\times2=8\) electrons.

For iron, a group-8 metal,

\[ d\text{-electron count}=8-OS. \]

Each coordinated water, carbonyl, nitrogen donor, or X-type donor contributes two electrons in the ionic counting method.

9 — Diaqua(L)iron(II) ion

Both chlorido ligands of 1 are replaced by water:

\[ \ce{[Fe(L)Cl2] + 2H2O -> [Fe(L)(H2O)2]^2+ + 2Cl-}. \]

Draw four nitrogen donors around iron and two water ligands in the positions previously occupied by chloride.

SMILES:

[OH2]->[Fe+2]6789<-[OH2].O=C(O)c1ccc(-c2ccn->6c(-c3cccc(-c4cccc(-c5ccccn5->7)n4->8)n3->9)c2)cc1

All ligands are neutral, so \(Z=OS=+2\). The electron count is

\[ VE=6+8+2(2)=18,\qquad CN=6. \]

10 — Aqua(L)iron(I) ion

One-electron reduction of 9, accompanied by loss of one water ligand, gives 10:

\[ \ce{[Fe(L)(H2O)2]^2+ + e- -> [Fe(L)(H2O)]^+ + H2O}. \]

Draw the four nitrogen donors and one water ligand.

SMILES:

[OH2]->[Fe+]6789.O=C(O)c1ccc(-c2ccn->6c(-c3cccc(-c4cccc(-c5ccccn5->7)n4->8)n3->9)c2)cc1

Thus

\[ OS=+1,\quad Z=+1,\quad CN=5,\quad VE=7+8+2=17. \]

11 — C,O-bound carbonite complex of iron(III)

The remaining water is displaced by carbon dioxide. The answer-sheet information specifies \(OS=+3\) and \(CN=6\). Because four coordination sites come from \(L\), carbon dioxide must bind through two atoms.

Draw an Fe–C–O three-membered ring, with the carbon also double-bonded to the second oxygen. This is the C,O-bound, formally two-electron-reduced carbon dioxide ligand, \(\ce{CO2^2-}\), often called carbonite.

SMILES:

[Fe+3]16789<-[O-][C-](=O)->1.O=C(O)c1ccc(-c2ccn->6c(-c3cccc(-c4cccc(-c5ccccn5->7)n4->8)n3->9)c2)cc1

Formation of this ligand formally transfers two electrons from iron(I) to carbon dioxide, giving iron(III). Consequently,

\[ Z=(+3)+(-2)=+1, \]

\[ CN=4+2=6,\qquad VE=5+8+4=17. \]

12 — Hydroxycarbonyl(L)iron(II) ion

Addition of one electron reduces iron(III) to iron(II). Protonation of the coordinated oxygen opens the Fe–C–O ring, leaving a carbon-bound hydroxycarbonyl ligand.

Draw the connectivity

\[ \ce{Fe-C(=O)-OH}, \]

with all four nitrogen donors still attached and no water ligand.

SMILES:

[Fe+2]6789<-[C-](=O)O.O=C(O)c1ccc(-c2ccn->6c(-c3cccc(-c4cccc(-c5ccccn5->7)n4->8)n3->9)c2)cc1

The hydroxycarbonyl ligand has formal charge \(-1\), so

\[ OS=+2,\quad Z=+1,\quad CN=5,\quad VE=6+8+2=16. \]

13 — Aqua(hydroxycarbonyl)(L)iron(II) ion

Water coordinates to 12:

\[ \ce{[Fe(L)(COOH)]^+ + H2O -> [Fe(L)(COOH)(H2O)]^+}. \]

Draw the same carbon-bound hydroxycarbonyl group, with one additional water ligand.

SMILES:

[OH2]->[Fe+2]6789<-[C-](=O)O.O=C(O)c1ccc(-c2ccn->6c(-c3cccc(-c4cccc(-c5ccccn5->7)n4->8)n3->9)c2)cc1

Water coordination changes neither charge nor oxidation state:

\[ OS=+2,\quad Z=+1,\quad CN=6,\quad VE=6+8+2+2=18. \]

14 — Aqua(carbonyl)(L)iron(II) ion

Protonation of the hydroxycarbonyl group permits loss of water, producing a carbonyl ligand:

\[ \ce{[Fe(L)(COOH)(H2O)]^+ + H+ -> [Fe(L)(CO)(H2O)]^2+ + H2O}. \]

Draw carbon monoxide attached through carbon, together with the retained water ligand.

SMILES:

[OH2]->[Fe+2]6789<-[C-]#[O+].O=C(O)c1ccc(-c2ccn->6c(-c3cccc(-c4cccc(-c5ccccn5->7)n4->8)n3->9)c2)cc1

Carbon monoxide is a neutral two-electron donor. Therefore

\[ OS=+2,\quad Z=+2,\quad CN=6,\quad VE=6+8+2+2=18. \]

15 — Aqua(L)iron(II) ion

Carbon monoxide dissociates:

\[ \ce{[Fe(L)(CO)(H2O)]^2+ -> [Fe(L)(H2O)]^2+ + CO}. \]

Draw iron coordinated to the four nitrogen donors and one water ligand.

SMILES:

[OH2]->[Fe+2]6789.O=C(O)c1ccc(-c2ccn->6c(-c3cccc(-c4cccc(-c5ccccn5->7)n4->8)n3->9)c2)cc1

Hence

\[ OS=+2,\quad Z=+2,\quad CN=5,\quad VE=6+8+2=16, \]

consistent with the supplied electron count. Addition of water regenerates 9.

Summing the cycle gives the reduction half-equation in 8.1.

8.5 — Surface density of catalyst molecules

Use the standard definition of mass fraction:

\[ w=\omega_{\mathrm{cat}} =\frac{m_{\mathrm{cat}}}{m_{\mathrm{cat}}+m_{\mathrm{support}}} =0.038. \]

Taking \(1.000\ \mathrm{g}\) of loaded material gives

\[ m_{\mathrm{cat}}=0.038\ \mathrm{g}, \qquad m_{\mathrm{support}}=0.962\ \mathrm{g}. \]

The number of catalyst molecules is

\[ N= \frac{0.038\ \mathrm{g}} {557.21\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}} (6.022\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}) =4.1068\times10^{19}. \]

If the stated specific surface area is per gram of bare \(\ce{C3N4}\), its area is

\[ S=(0.962\ \mathrm{g})(17.8\ \mathrm{m^2\,g^{-1}}) =17.1236\ \mathrm{m^2} =1.71236\times10^{19}\ \mathrm{nm^2}. \]

Thus

\[ \boxed{ N_{\mathrm{cat}} =\frac{wN_A}{(1-w)M_{\mathrm{cat}}s\,10^{18}} =2.398\approx2.4\ \text{molecules}\,\mathrm{nm^{-2}} }. \]

If \(17.8\ \mathrm{m^2\,g^{-1}}\) is instead the area per gram of loaded material, the factor \(1-w\) is absent:

\[ \boxed{ N_{\mathrm{cat}} =\frac{wN_A}{M_{\mathrm{cat}}s\,10^{18}} =2.307\approx2.3\ \text{molecules}\,\mathrm{nm^{-2}} }. \]

8.6 — Quantum yield

Each molecule of carbon monoxide requires two electrons.

First interpret the stated \(10\ \mathrm{mg}\) as the mass of the bare support. The catalyst mass is then

\[ m_{\mathrm{cat}} =\frac{w}{1-w}m_{\mathrm{support}} =\frac{0.038}{0.962}(0.010\ \mathrm{g}) =3.9501\times10^{-4}\ \mathrm{g}. \]

Consequently,

\[ n_{\mathrm{cat}} =\frac{3.9501\times10^{-4}}{557.21} =7.0891\times10^{-7}\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

In one hour,

\[ n_{\ce{CO}} =(8\ \mathrm{h^{-1}}) (7.0891\times10^{-7}\ \mathrm{mol}) (1\ \mathrm{h}) =5.6713\times10^{-6}\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

The number of reacted electrons is

\[ N_e=2n_{\ce{CO}}N_A =6.8305\times10^{18}. \]

The energy of each incident photon is

\[ E_\gamma=\frac{hc}{\lambda} = \frac{ (6.626\times10^{-34}\ \mathrm{J\,s}) (2.998\times10^8\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}) }{ 390\times10^{-9}\ \mathrm{m} } =5.0935\times10^{-19}\ \mathrm{J}. \]

The incident energy in one hour is

\[ Pt=(0.050\ \mathrm{J\,s^{-1}})(3600\ \mathrm{s}) =180\ \mathrm{J}, \]

so

\[ N_\gamma=\frac{180}{5.0935\times10^{-19}} =3.5339\times10^{20}. \]

Therefore

\[ \boxed{ \varphi =\frac{6.8305\times10^{18}}{3.5339\times10^{20}} \times100\% =1.93\% }. \]

If \(10\ \mathrm{mg}\) denotes the total loaded material, then

\[ m_{\mathrm{cat}}=(0.038)(0.010\ \mathrm{g}) =3.80\times10^{-4}\ \mathrm{g}, \]

and the same calculation gives

\[ \boxed{\varphi=1.86\%}. \]

The result is approximately \(1.9\%\) under either interpretation.

8.7 — Overall rate versus catalyst loading

TOF is the rate per catalyst molecule. The amount of catalyst per gram of loaded material increases in proportion to its mass fraction, so

\[ r_{\ce{CO}} =\frac{w}{M_{\mathrm{cat}}}\,\mathrm{TOF}. \]

It is therefore the product \(w\,\mathrm{TOF}\), not TOF alone, that determines the overall rate.

Catalyst loading TOF / \(\mathrm{h^{-1}}\) \(w\,\mathrm{TOF}\) / \(\mathrm{h^{-1}}\)
\(0.1\%\) 62 0.062
\(0.3\%\) 56 0.168
\(0.6\%\) 37 0.222
\(1.0\%\) 29 0.290
\(2.0\%\) 15 0.300
\(2.9\%\) 11 0.319

The product increases throughout the plotted range. Normalizing to bare support instead introduces the factor \(1/(1-w)\), which also increases and does not change the conclusion.

\[ \boxed{\text{a) increases}} \]

8.8 — Identification of irradiation conditions

The empty position a corresponds to no irradiation, N.

Photon energies follow

\[ E_{\mathrm{blue}}>E_{\mathrm{green}}>E_{\mathrm{red}}, \]

because \(E=hc/\lambda\).

The hydrogen-evolution branch has substantially larger uphill free-energy changes, including a \(+1.832\ \mathrm{eV}\) step. In the qualitative interpretation intended by the problem, higher-energy illumination permits a larger contribution from this competing pathway.

The hydrogen fractions decrease from b to c to d, approximately \(28\%\), \(8\%\), and \(4\%\). Accordingly,

\[ \boxed{ \mathrm{a=N,\qquad b=B,\qquad c=G,\qquad d=R} }. \]

8.9 — Quenching efficiencies

With intersystem crossing and reverse intersystem crossing neglected, each excited state has two competing types of decay:

  • intrinsic decay, with total rate constant \(k_0=1/\tau_0\);
  • reductive quenching, with pseudo-first-order rate constant \(k_q[\mathrm{Red}]\).

The probability that an excited molecule is quenched is therefore

\[ \eta_q = \frac{k_q[\mathrm{Red}]}{k_0+k_q[\mathrm{Red}]}\times100\% = \frac{k_q[\mathrm{Red}]\tau_0} {1+k_q[\mathrm{Red}]\tau_0}\times100\%. \]

For the singlet state,

\[ k_S[\mathrm{Red}]\tau_0(\mathrm{S}_1) = (2.7\times10^9\ \mathrm{M^{-1}s^{-1}}) (0.1\ \mathrm{M}) (2.9\times10^{-9}\ \mathrm{s}) =0.783. \]

Thus

\[ \boxed{ \eta_q(\mathrm{S}_1) =\frac{0.783}{1+0.783}\times100\% =43.9\% }. \]

For the triplet state,

\[ k_T[\mathrm{Red}]\tau_0(\mathrm{T}_1) = (1.5\times10^8\ \mathrm{M^{-1}s^{-1}}) (0.1\ \mathrm{M}) (84\times10^{-6}\ \mathrm{s}) =1260. \]

Hence

\[ \boxed{ \eta_q(\mathrm{T}_1) =\frac{1260}{1261}\times100\% =99.92\% }. \]

Although the triplet quenching rate constant is smaller, its much longer unquenched lifetime makes quenching nearly quantitative.

8.10 — Dependence of emission lifetime on reductant concentration

The observed lifetime is

\[ \boxed{ \tau= \frac{1}{k_0+k_q[\mathrm{Red}]} =\frac{\tau_0}{1+k_q[\mathrm{Red}]\tau_0} }. \]

Increasing reductant concentration increases the total decay rate and therefore decreases the lifetime of both excited states.

At the concentration used in 8.9, the lifetimes are

\[ \tau(\mathrm{S}_1)=\frac{2.9\ \mathrm{ns}}{1.783} =1.63\ \mathrm{ns}, \]

\[ \tau(\mathrm{T}_1)=\frac{84\ \mathrm{\mu s}}{1261} =0.0666\ \mathrm{\mu s} =66.6\ \mathrm{ns}. \]

Thus the correct choice is

\[ \boxed{\text{b) decreases, for both states}}. \]

The solution was checked against the official solution.