IChO 2026 · Theory problem 1

A journey through time: The secrets of Avicenna

T1. A journey through time: The secrets of Avicenna

7%

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 \(\sum\)
3 4 3 4 7 4 25
Figure 1

A chemist found herself in the 11th Century, where she met the renowned physician Avicenna. In Avicenna's laboratory, she discovered a blue elixir and a yellow mysterious stone. She brought them back to 2026. Determined to uncover their composition, she began her research.

Part 1. The blue elixir

At first, the chemist compiled a table listing the names of the only four plants which she saw in Avicenna’s lab that could have been used to prepare the elixir, and the compounds that can be extracted from these plants.

Plants Compounds that can be extracted
Zingiber 1 (\(\ce{C11H14O3}\)) 2 (\(\ce{C10H18O}\)) 3 (\(\ce{C10H18O}\))
Hypericum 4 (\(\ce{C6H12O}\)) 5 (\(\ce{C10H12O2}\)) 6 (\(\ce{C10H18O}\))
Chamomilla 7 (\(\ce{C14H16}\)) 8 (\(\ce{C15H24}\)) 3 (\(\ce{C10H18O}\))
Artemisia 9 (\(\ce{C10H16O}\)) 10 (\(\ce{C10H18O}\)) 3 (\(\ce{C10H18O}\))
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5

Using chromatography, she determined that the elixir consists of four different substances (X, Y, Z and W).

The chemist then discovered that X can isomerise into Y in an acidic medium and that Y has a plane of symmetry.

1.1 Identify X and Y. — 3.0 pt

Chromatography also revealed it was substance Z that gave the elixir its blue colour. Z is a derivative of the well-known substance A, which has two perpendicular planes of symmetry. When heated, A isomerises into aromatic compound B, which has three mutually perpendicular planes of symmetry. When substance Z is chlorinated, a pair of peaks with an intensity ratio of 3:1 is observed in the mass spectrum at \(m/z\) 218 and 220, respectively.

1.2 Identify Z and draw the structures of substances A and B. — 4.0 pt

The chemist extracted W from the elixir. When W was added to an aqueous \(\ce{Fe^3+}\) solution, a characteristic colour change was observed. Mass spectrometric analysis of W revealed the intensity ratio of \([\mathrm{M}]^+:[\mathrm{M}+1]^+=9:1\), where M is the molecular ion. Assume carbon consists exclusively of \(\ce{^{12}C}\) and \(\ce{^{13}C}\), the natural isotopic abundance of \(\ce{^{12}C}\) is 98.9%, and all other elements are monoisotopic.

1.3 Determine the number of carbon atoms (\(n\)) from the mass spec data and identify W. Show your calculations. — 3.0 pt

Part 2. The mysterious stone

Avicenna had told her the stone was a stoichiometric compound. She dissolved it in dilute nitric acid. After that, she adjusted the pH of the solution to ~4 and added \(\ce{NaF}\). This led to the formation of precipitate \(\mathbf{C}\cdot x\ce{H2O}\), which contained 39.16% water by mass. Anhydrous C reacts with an excess of \(\ce{NaF}\) to yield compound D, which contains 32.85% sodium and 12.85% of metal Q by mass, and is used in the industrial production of Q.

Figure 6

1.4 Identify metal Q and compounds \(\mathbf{C}\cdot x\ce{H2O}\) and D. — 4.0 pt

Avicenna told her that he found the stone in a coal deposit. The stone contains the anion of a highly symmetrical acid F. Reaction of F with \(\ce{P2O5}\) gives binary compound G, which contains 49.98% of oxygen by mass and has a three-fold symmetry axis. F can be prepared by oxidising compound E with potassium permanganate in an acidic solution. E contains 11.18% of hydrogen by mass and has a six-fold symmetry axis.

Figure 7

1.5 Draw the structures of E, F, and G. — 7.0 pt

Then, she analysed the stone thermogravimetrically in open air. A 10.00 g sample began to lose mass at approximately \(100\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\) and stopped at 5.75 g at \(200\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\). A second drop in mass was observed at \(400\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\), with a final mass of 1.50 g of compound H remaining constant at higher temperatures.

1.6 Determine the chemical formulae of the stone and compound H using thermogravimetric data. — 4.0 pt

Periodic Table of Elements

Figure 8

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 1.1: X = 6, linalool; Y = 3, 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol).
  • 1.2: Z = 7, chamazulene; A is azulene; B is naphthalene.
  • 1.3: \(n=\boxed{10}\); W = 5, eugenol.
  • 1.4: Q is aluminium; \(\mathbf{C}\cdot x\ce{H2O}=\boxed{\ce{AlF3.3H2O}}\), so \(x=3\); D is cryolite, \(\boxed{\ce{Na3AlF6}}\).
  • 1.5: E is hexamethylbenzene, \(\ce{C12H18}\); F is mellitic acid, \(\ce{C6(COOH)6}\); G is mellitic trianhydride, \(\ce{C12O9}\).
  • 1.6: The stone is mellite, \(\boxed{\ce{Al2[C6(COO)6].16H2O}}\); H is aluminium oxide, \(\boxed{\ce{Al2O3}}\).

Solution

1.1

X is compound 6, linalool, or 3,7-dimethylocta-1,6-dien-3-ol:

C=CC(C)(O)CCC=C(C)C

Y is compound 3, 1,8-cineole, also called eucalyptol:

CC12CCC(CC1)C(C)(C)O2

Linalool can undergo acid-catalysed rearrangement and cyclisation to 1,8-cineole. The net transformation conserves the molecular formula:

\[ \ce{C10H18O ->[H^+] C10H18O} \qquad(\mathbf X\longrightarrow\mathbf Y). \]

The acyclic diene alcohol becomes a saturated bicyclic ether: two double bonds are replaced by two rings.

In 1,8-cineole, a mirror plane contains the oxygen-containing bridge and the two bridgehead carbons, and exchanges the two equivalent carbon bridges. This satisfies the symmetry clue. Linalool’s configuration is unspecified in the supplied drawing, so its SMILES does not assign an enantiomer.

1.2

The required parent compound is A, azulene, \(\ce{C10H8}\):

C1=CC=C2C=CC=C2C=C1

Its structure consists of a five-membered ring fused to a seven-membered ring, with a delocalised aromatic \(10\pi\)-electron system. To draw it, show these two rings sharing one edge and five double bonds in a valid Kekulé arrangement.

Azulene has two perpendicular mirror planes: the molecular plane and a plane perpendicular to it that bisects both rings.

On heating, azulene isomerises to B, naphthalene, \(\ce{C10H8}\):

c1ccc2ccccc2c1

\[ \ce{C10H8 ->[\Delta] C10H8} \qquad(\mathbf A\longrightarrow\mathbf B). \]

Naphthalene consists of two fused six-membered aromatic rings. Its molecular plane and the two planes perpendicular to it through its long and short molecular axes are three mutually perpendicular mirror planes.

Thus the blue component is Z, compound 7, chamazulene, or 7-ethyl-1,4-dimethylazulene, \(\ce{C14H16}\):

CCC1=CC2=C(C)C=CC2=C(C)C=C1

The chlorination data independently confirm this identification. A molecular-ion pair separated by two mass units with approximately \(3:1\) intensities is characteristic of one chlorine atom, arising from \(\ce{^{35}Cl}\) and \(\ce{^{37}Cl}\).

Monochlorination by substitution gives:

\[ \ce{C14H16 + Cl2 -> C14H15Cl + HCl}. \]

The nominal masses of the two chlorine isotopologues are

\[ 14(12)+15(1)+35=218, \] \[ 14(12)+15(1)+37=220. \]

These are exactly the stated peaks. Their masses establish the chlorinated formula without requiring the chlorine substitution position.

1.3

Let

\[ p=P(\ce{^{12}C})=0.989,\qquad q=P(\ce{^{13}C})=0.011. \]

For a molecule containing \(n\) carbon atoms, the probabilities of containing no \(\ce{^{13}C}\) atoms and exactly one \(\ce{^{13}C}\) atom are

\[ P_0=p^n,\qquad P_1=nqp^{n-1}. \]

Therefore,

\[ \frac{I(M+1)}{I(M)} =\frac{P_1}{P_0} =n\frac{q}{p} =\frac{1}{9}. \]

Hence

\[ n=\frac{0.989}{9(0.011)} =9.9899\approx\boxed{10}. \]

The small departure from an integer reflects rounding of the supplied abundance and intensity ratio.

The characteristic colour with aqueous iron(III) identifies a phenolic group, through formation of coloured iron–phenolate complexes. Compounds 1 and 5 contain phenolic hydroxyl groups, but only 5 contains ten carbon atoms.

Thus W is compound 5, eugenol, or 2-methoxy-4-(prop-2-en-1-yl)phenol, \(\ce{C10H12O2}\):

COc1cc(CC=C)ccc1O

1.4

Compound D is a sodium–metal fluoride. Its fluorine mass percentage is

\[ w_{\mathrm F}=100.00-32.85-12.85=54.30\%. \]

For \(100.00\ \mathrm g\) of D,

\[ n_{\mathrm{Na}} =\frac{32.85\ \mathrm g}{22.99\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}} =1.4289\ \mathrm{mol}, \]

\[ n_{\mathrm F} =\frac{54.30\ \mathrm g}{19.00\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}} =2.8579\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

Thus \(\mathrm{Na:F}=1:2\). A formula written with one metal atom is consequently \(\ce{Na_aQF_{2a}}\), with the metal in oxidation state \(+a\). Its atomic molar mass must satisfy

\[ \frac{M_Q}{a} =\frac{12.85}{32.85}(22.99) =8.993\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}. \]

For \(a=3\), this gives \(M_Q=26.98\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\), identifying aluminium.

Thus Q is aluminium, \(\ce{Al}\), SMILES [Al], and D is cryolite, sodium hexafluoroaluminate, \(\ce{Na3AlF6}\).

Its molar mass is

\[ M_D=3(22.99)+26.98+6(19.00) =209.95\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}. \]

The calculated percentages are

\[ w_{\mathrm{Na}}=\frac{68.97}{209.95}(100\%)=32.85\%, \qquad w_{\mathrm{Al}}=\frac{26.98}{209.95}(100\%)=12.85\%. \]

Cryolite is used as the molten electrolyte medium in aluminium production, agreeing with the industrial clue.

Its ionic-composition SMILES is:

[Na+].[Na+].[Na+].[Al+3].[F-].[F-].[F-].[F-].[F-].[F-]

Cryolite contains octahedral \(\ce{[AlF6]^3-}\) units. The disconnected SMILES records composition and charges, not this coordination geometry or the crystal lattice.

C is aluminium fluoride, \(\ce{AlF3}\):

[Al+3].[F-].[F-].[F-]

Since

\[ M_{\ce{AlF3}}=26.98+3(19.00)=83.98\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}, \]

the hydrate’s water fraction gives

\[ \frac{18.016x}{83.98+18.016x}=0.3916. \]

Therefore,

\[ x=\frac{0.3916(83.98)}{0.6084(18.016)} =3.0003\approx\boxed{3}. \]

The precipitate is aluminium fluoride trihydrate, \(\ce{AlF3.3H2O}\):

[Al+3].[F-].[F-].[F-].O.O.O

The relevant balanced reactions are

\[ \ce{Al^3+ + 3F- + 3H2O -> AlF3.3H2O(s)} \]

and

\[ \ce{AlF3 + 3NaF -> Na3AlF6}. \]

1.5

E is hexamethylbenzene, \(\ce{C12H18}\):

Cc1c(C)c(C)c(C)c(C)c1C

To draw E, place a methyl group on every carbon of a benzene ring. The six equivalent substituents give the required sixfold symmetry of the substitution pattern about an axis perpendicular to the ring.

Its hydrogen mass percentage is

\[ w_{\mathrm H} = \frac{18(1.008)} {12(12.01)+18(1.008)}(100\%) =11.1818\%\approx11.18\%. \]

Oxidation of all six benzylic methyl groups to carboxyl groups produces F, mellitic acid, or benzenehexacarboxylic acid, \(\ce{C6(COOH)6}\):

O=C(O)c1c(C(=O)O)c(C(=O)O)c(C(=O)O)c(C(=O)O)c1C(=O)O

To draw F, replace each methyl group in E by \(\ce{-COOH}\).

Each methyl carbon undergoes a six-electron oxidation, giving 36 electrons per molecule of E. The balanced oxidation half-reaction is

\[ \ce{C12H18 + 12H2O -> C12H6O12 + 36H+ + 36e-}. \]

Combining this with acidic permanganate reduction gives

\[ \ce{5C12H18 + 36MnO4- + 108H+ -> 5C12H6O12 + 36Mn^2+ + 84H2O}. \]

Dehydration of three adjacent pairs of carboxyl groups gives G, mellitic trianhydride, \(\ce{C12O9}\):

O=C1OC(=O)c2c1c1c(c3c2C(=O)OC3=O)C(=O)OC1=O

To draw G, retain the central benzene ring and form cyclic anhydrides from carboxyl pairs at positions \(1,2\), \(3,4\), and \(5,6\). Each pair becomes a five-membered ring containing the linkage \(\ce{-C(=O)-O-C(=O)-}\), fused to one edge of the benzene ring. Rotation by \(120^\circ\) exchanges the three anhydride rings, giving a threefold axis perpendicular to the central ring.

Formally, F loses three water molecules:

\[ \ce{C12H6O12 -> C12O9 + 3H2O}. \]

Including their uptake by the dehydrating agent, the net balance is

\[ \ce{C12H6O12 + P2O5 -> C12O9 + 2H3PO4}. \]

The oxygen percentage of G is

\[ w_{\mathrm O} = \frac{9(16.00)} {12(12.01)+9(16.00)}(100\%) =49.9792\%\approx49.98\%. \]

Thus both the elemental composition and symmetry agree.

1.6

Mellitic acid is hexabasic. Its fully deprotonated anion has charge \(6-\), so charge balance with aluminium(III) gives the anhydrous salt

\[ \ce{Al2[C6(COO)6]}=\ce{Al2C12O12}. \]

Its molar mass is

\[ M_{\text{anhydrous}} =2(26.98)+12(12.01)+12(16.00) =390.08\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}. \]

The first mass loss is dehydration:

\[ m_{\text{water}}=10.00-5.75=4.25\ \mathrm g, \]

\[ n_{\text{water}} =\frac{4.25}{18.016} =0.2359\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

The amount of anhydrous salt is

\[ n_{\text{salt}} =\frac{5.75}{390.08} =0.0147406\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

Therefore, the number of waters per formula unit is

\[ x=\frac{0.235901}{0.0147406} =16.0036\approx\boxed{16}. \]

The stone is consequently mellite, aluminium mellitate hexadecahydrate:

\[ \boxed{\ce{Al2[C6(COO)6].16H2O}}. \]

Its formula-unit composition SMILES is:

[Al+3].[Al+3].O=C([O-])c1c(C(=O)[O-])c(C(=O)[O-])c(C(=O)[O-])c(C(=O)[O-])c1C(=O)[O-].O.O.O.O.O.O.O.O.O.O.O.O.O.O.O.O

This notation gives the two aluminium ions, mellitate anion, and sixteen waters; it does not assign their solid-state coordination.

The dehydration equation is

\[ \ce{Al2C12O12.16H2O ->[\Delta] Al2C12O12 + 16H2O}. \]

In air, the organic anion is oxidised, leaving H, aluminium oxide, \(\ce{Al2O3}\):

[Al+3].[Al+3].[O-2].[O-2].[O-2]

The balanced oxidation is

\[ \ce{2Al2C12O12 + 15O2 ->[\Delta] 2Al2O3 + 24CO2}. \]

Thus

\[ M_{\ce{Al2O3}}=2(26.98)+3(16.00) =101.96\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}. \]

Using

\[ M_{\text{stone}}=390.08+16(18.016) =678.336\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}, \]

the two predicted residue masses from \(10.00\ \mathrm g\) are

\[ m_{\text{anhydrous}} =10.00\frac{390.08}{678.336} =5.7505\ \mathrm g \approx5.75\ \mathrm g, \]

\[ m_{\ce{Al2O3}} =10.00\frac{101.96}{678.336} =1.5031\ \mathrm g \approx1.50\ \mathrm g. \]

Both agree with the measured plateaus. The second mass loss is a net loss: oxygen enters from the air while carbon dioxide leaves.

The earlier dissolution in nitric acid is also consistent with this formula:

\[ \ce{Al2C12O12.16H2O + 6HNO3 -> 2Al(NO3)3 + C12H6O12 + 16H2O}. \]

The solution was checked against the official solution.