IPhO 2015 · Theory problem 1

Particles from the Sun

Photons from the surface of the Sun and neutrinos from its core can tell us about solar temperatures and also confirm that the Sun shines because of nuclear reactions.

Throughout this problem, take the mass of the Sun to be \(M_\odot=2.00\times10^{30}\ \mathrm{kg}\), its radius, \(R_\odot=7.00\times10^8\ \mathrm{m}\), its luminosity (radiation energy emitted per unit time), \(L_\odot=3.85\times10^{26}\ \mathrm{W}\), and the Earth-Sun distance, \(d_\odot=1.50\times10^{11}\ \mathrm{m}\).

Note:

\[ \text{(i)}\quad \int xe^{ax}\,dx =\left(\frac{x}{a}-\frac{1}{a^2}\right)e^{ax} +\text{constant} \]

\[ \text{(ii)}\quad \int x^2e^{ax}\,dx =\left(\frac{x^2}{a}-\frac{2x}{a^2}+\frac{2}{a^3}\right)e^{ax} +\text{constant} \]

\[ \text{(iii)}\quad \int x^3e^{ax}\,dx =\left(\frac{x^3}{a}-\frac{3x^2}{a^2} +\frac{6x}{a^3}-\frac{6}{a^4}\right)e^{ax} +\text{constant} \]

A Radiation from the sun :

Part Question Marks
A1 Assume that the Sun radiates like a perfect blackbody. Use this fact to calculate the temperature, \(T_s\), of the solar surface. 0.3

The spectrum of solar radiation can be approximated well by the Wien distribution law. Accordingly, the solar energy incident on any surface on the Earth per unit time per unit frequency interval, \(u(\nu)\), is given by

\[ u(\nu)=A\frac{R_\odot^2}{d_\odot^2}\frac{2\pi h}{c^2} \nu^3\exp(-h\nu/k_BT_s), \]

where \(\nu\) is the frequency and \(A\) is the area of the surface normal to the direction of the incident radiation.

Now, consider a solar cell which consists of a thin disc of semiconducting material of area, \(A\), placed perpendicular to the direction of the Sun’s rays.

Part Question Marks
A2 Using the Wien approximation, express the total radiated solar power, \(P_{\mathrm{in}}\), incident on the surface of the solar cell, in terms of \(A\), \(R_\odot\), \(d_\odot\), \(T_s\) and the fundamental constants \(c\), \(h\), \(k_B\). 0.3
A3 Express the number of photons, \(n_\gamma(\nu)\), per unit time per unit frequency interval incident on the surface of the solar cell in terms of \(A\), \(R_\odot\), \(d_\odot\), \(T_s\), \(\nu\) and the fundamental constants \(c\), \(h\), \(k_B\). 0.2

The semiconducting material of the solar cell has a “band gap” of energy, \(E_g\). We assume the following model. Every photon of energy \(E\geq E_g\) excites an electron across the band gap. This electron contributes an energy, \(E_g\), as the useful output energy, and any extra energy is dissipated as heat (not converted to useful energy).

Part Question Marks
A4 Define \(x_g=h\nu_g/k_BT_s\) where \(E_g=h\nu_g\). Express the useful output power of the cell, \(P_{\mathrm{out}}\), in terms of \(x_g\), \(A\), \(R_\odot\), \(d_\odot\), \(T_s\) and the fundamental constants \(c\), \(h\), \(k_B\). 1.0
A5 Express the efficiency, \(\eta\), of this solar cell in terms of \(x_g\). 0.2
A6 Make a qualitative sketch of \(\eta\) versus \(x_g\). The values at \(x_g=0\) and \(x_g\to\infty\) should be clearly shown. What is the slope of \(\eta(x_g)\) at \(x_g=0\) and \(x_g\to\infty\)? 1.0
A7 Let \(x_0\) be the value of \(x_g\) for which \(\eta\) is maximum. Obtain the cubic equation that gives \(x_0\). Estimate the value of \(x_0\) within an accuracy of \(\pm0.25\). Hence calculate \(\eta(x_0)\). 1.0
A8 The band gap of pure silicon is \(E_g=1.11\ \mathrm{eV}\). Calculate the efficiency, \(\eta_{\mathrm{Si}}\), of a silicon solar cell using this value. 0.2

\(^{1}\) Amol Dighe (TIFR), Anwesh Mazumdar (HBCSE-TIFR) and Vijay A. Singh (ex-National Coordinator, Science Olympiads) were the principal authors of this problem. The contributions of the Academic Committee, Academic Development Group and the International Board are gratefully acknowledged.

In the late nineteenth century, Kelvin and Helmholtz (KH) proposed a hypothesis to explain how the Sun shines. They postulated that starting as a very large cloud of matter of mass, \(M_\odot\), and negligible density, the Sun has been shrinking continuously. The shining of the Sun would then be due to the release of gravitational potential energy through this slow contraction.

Part Question Marks
A9 Let us assume that the density of matter is uniform inside the Sun. Find the total gravitational potential energy, \(\Omega\), of the Sun at present, in terms of \(G\), \(M_\odot\) and \(R_\odot\). 0.3
A10 Estimate the maximum possible time, \(\tau_{\mathrm{KH}}\) (in years), for which the Sun could have been shining, according to the KH hypothesis. Assume that the luminosity of the Sun has been constant throughout this period. 0.5

The \(\tau_{\mathrm{KH}}\) calculated above does not match the age of the solar system estimated from studies of meteorites. This shows that the energy source of the Sun cannot be purely gravitational.

B Neutrinos from the Sun :

In 1938, Hans Bethe proposed that nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium in the core of the Sun is the source of its energy. The net nuclear reaction is:

\[ 4\,{}^{1}\mathrm{H}\longrightarrow{}^{4}\mathrm{He} +2e^++2\nu_e \]

The “electron neutrinos”, \(\nu_e\), produced in this reaction may be taken to be massless. They escape the Sun and their detection on the Earth confirms the occurrence of nuclear reactions inside the Sun. Energy carried away by the neutrinos can be neglected in this problem.

Part Question Marks
B1 Calculate the flux density, \(\Phi_\nu\), of the number of neutrinos arriving at the Earth, in units of \(\mathrm{m^{-2}\,s^{-1}}\). The energy released in the above reaction is \(\Delta E=4.0\times10^{-12}\ \mathrm{J}\). Assume that the energy radiated by the Sun is entirely due to this reaction. 0.6

Travelling from the core of the Sun to the Earth, some of the electron neutrinos, \(\nu_e\), are converted to other types of neutrinos, \(\nu_x\). The efficiency of the detector for detecting \(\nu_x\) is 1/6 of its efficiency for detecting \(\nu_e\). If there is no neutrino conversion, we expect to detect an average of \(N_1\) neutrinos in a year. However, due to the conversion, an average of \(N_2\) neutrinos (\(\nu_e\) and \(\nu_x\) combined) are actually detected per year.

Part Question Marks
B2 In terms of \(N_1\) and \(N_2\), calculate what fraction, \(f\), of \(\nu_e\) is converted to \(\nu_x\). 0.4

In order to detect neutrinos, large detectors filled with water are constructed. Although the interactions of neutrinos with matter are very rare, occasionally they knock out electrons from water molecules in the detector. These energetic electrons move through water at high speeds, emitting electromagnetic radiation in the process. As long as the speed of such an electron is greater than the speed of light in water (refractive index, \(n\)), this radiation, called Cherenkov radiation, is emitted in the shape of a cone.

Part Question Marks
B3 Assume that an electron knocked out by a neutrino loses energy at a constant rate of \(\alpha\) per unit time, while it travels through water. If this electron emits Cherenkov radiation for a time, \(\Delta t\), determine the energy imparted to this electron (\(E_{\mathrm{imparted}}\)) by the neutrino, in terms of \(\alpha\), \(\Delta t\), \(n\), \(m_e\) and \(c\). (Assume the electron to be at rest before its interaction with the neutrino.) 2.0

The fusion of H into He inside the Sun takes place in several steps. Nucleus of \({}^{7}\mathrm{Be}\) (rest mass, \(m_{\mathrm{Be}}\)) is produced in one of these intermediate steps. Subsequently, it can absorb an electron, producing a \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}\) nucleus (rest mass, \(m_{\mathrm{Li}}<m_{\mathrm{Be}}\)) and emitting a \(\nu_e\). The corresponding nuclear reaction is:

\[ {}^{7}\mathrm{Be}+e^-\longrightarrow{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}+\nu_e \]

When a Be nucleus (\(m_{\mathrm{Be}}=11.65\times10^{-27}\ \mathrm{kg}\)) is at rest and absorbs an electron also at rest, the emitted neutrino has energy \(E_\nu=1.44\times10^{-13}\ \mathrm{J}\). However, the Be nuclei are in random thermal motion due to the temperature \(T_c\) at the core of the Sun, and act as moving neutrino sources. As a result, the energy of emitted neutrinos fluctuates with a root mean square (rms) value \(\Delta E_{\mathrm{rms}}\).

Part Question Marks
B4 If \(\Delta E_{\mathrm{rms}}=5.54\times10^{-17}\ \mathrm{J}\), calculate the rms speed of the Be nuclei, \(V_{\mathrm{Be}}\), and hence estimate \(T_c\). (Hint: \(\Delta E_{\mathrm{rms}}\) depends on the rms value of the component of velocity along the line of sight). 2.0

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • A1 \[ T_s=\left(\frac{L_\odot}{4\pi R_\odot^2\sigma}\right)^{1/4} \simeq 5.76\times10^3\ \mathrm{K}. \]

  • A2 \[ P_{\mathrm{in}} =\frac{12\pi A R_\odot^2(k_BT_s)^4} {d_\odot^2c^2h^3}. \]

  • A3 \[ n_\gamma(\nu) =\frac{2\pi A R_\odot^2}{d_\odot^2c^2} \nu^2e^{-h\nu/(k_BT_s)}. \]

  • A4 \[ P_{\mathrm{out}} =\frac{2\pi A R_\odot^2(k_BT_s)^4} {d_\odot^2c^2h^3} x_g(x_g^2+2x_g+2)e^{-x_g}. \]

  • A5 \[ \eta(x_g)=\frac{x_g(x_g^2+2x_g+2)e^{-x_g}}{6}. \]

  • A6 The curve starts at the origin with slope \(1/3\), reaches one maximum near \((2.27,0.457)\), and approaches the horizontal axis from above: \[ \eta(0)=0,\qquad \lim_{x_g\to\infty}\eta=0,\qquad \eta'(0)=\frac13,\qquad \lim_{x_g\to\infty}\eta'=0 \quad\text{from below}. \]

  • A7 \[ x_0^3-x_0^2-2x_0-2=0,\qquad x_0\simeq2.27,\qquad \eta(x_0)\simeq0.457=45.7\%. \]

  • A8 \[ x_{g,\mathrm{Si}}\simeq2.24,\qquad \eta_{\mathrm{Si}}\simeq0.457=45.7\%. \]

  • A9 \[ \Omega=-\frac{3GM_\odot^2}{5R_\odot} \simeq-2.29\times10^{41}\ \mathrm{J}. \]

  • A10 \[ \tau_{\mathrm{KH}} =\frac{3GM_\odot^2}{5R_\odot L_\odot} \simeq1.88\times10^7\ \mathrm{years}. \]

  • B1 \[ \Phi_\nu=\frac{2L_\odot}{4\pi d_\odot^2\Delta E} \simeq6.8\times10^{14}\ \mathrm{m^{-2}\,s^{-1}}. \]

  • B2 \[ f=\frac65\left(1-\frac{N_2}{N_1}\right). \]

  • B3 \[ E_{\mathrm{imparted}} =\alpha\Delta t+ m_ec^2\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-1/n^2}}-1\right). \]

  • B4 \[ V_{\mathrm{Be}} =\sqrt3\,c\frac{\Delta E_{\mathrm{rms}}}{E_\nu} \simeq2.00\times10^5\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}, \] \[ T_c=\frac{m_{\mathrm{Be}}c^2}{k_B} \left(\frac{\Delta E_{\mathrm{rms}}}{E_\nu}\right)^2 \simeq1.12\times10^7\ \mathrm{K}. \]

Solution

For numerical evaluation, use the standard constants \[ \begin{aligned} \sigma&=5.6704\times10^{-8}\ \mathrm{W\,m^{-2}\,K^{-4}},\\ G&=6.6743\times10^{-11}\ \mathrm{m^3\,kg^{-1}\,s^{-2}},\\ k_B&=1.380649\times10^{-23}\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}},\\ c&=2.99792458\times10^8\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}, \end{aligned} \] with \(1\ \mathrm{eV}=1.602176634\times10^{-19}\ \mathrm{J}\) and \(1\ \mathrm{year}=3.15576\times10^7\ \mathrm{s}\).

A1

By the Stefan–Boltzmann law, a blackbody emits power \(\sigma T^4\) per unit surface area. The Sun’s emitting area is \(4\pi R_\odot^2\), so \[ L_\odot=4\pi R_\odot^2\sigma T_s^4. \] Therefore, \[ T_s= \left[ \frac{3.85\times10^{26}} {4\pi(7.00\times10^8)^2(5.6704\times10^{-8})} \right]^{1/4} =\boxed{5.76\times10^3\ \mathrm{K}}. \]

A2

The total incident power is the integral over all frequencies: \[ P_{\mathrm{in}} =A\frac{R_\odot^2}{d_\odot^2}\frac{2\pi h}{c^2} \int_0^\infty\nu^3e^{-h\nu/(k_BT_s)}\,d\nu. \] Set \[ x=\frac{h\nu}{k_BT_s}, \qquad d\nu=\frac{k_BT_s}{h}\,dx. \] Then \[ P_{\mathrm{in}} =\frac{2\pi A R_\odot^2(k_BT_s)^4} {d_\odot^2c^2h^3} \int_0^\infty x^3e^{-x}\,dx. \] The supplied integration formula gives \[ \int_0^\infty x^3e^{-x}\,dx =\left[-e^{-x}(x^3+3x^2+6x+6)\right]_0^\infty =6. \] Thus \[ \boxed{ P_{\mathrm{in}} =\frac{12\pi A R_\odot^2(k_BT_s)^4} {d_\odot^2c^2h^3} }. \] All efficiencies below use this same Wien-approximation input power.

A3

Each photon of frequency \(\nu\) carries energy \(h\nu\). Dividing the spectral power by this energy gives the spectral photon arrival rate: \[ n_\gamma(\nu)=\frac{u(\nu)}{h\nu}. \] Hence \[ \boxed{ n_\gamma(\nu) =\frac{2\pi A R_\odot^2}{d_\odot^2c^2} \nu^2e^{-h\nu/(k_BT_s)} }. \] Its units are photons per second per hertz.

A4

Only photons with \(\nu\geq\nu_g\) contribute, and each contributes useful energy \(E_g\). Consequently, \[ P_{\mathrm{out}} =E_g\int_{\nu_g}^\infty n_\gamma(\nu)\,d\nu. \] Using \(E_g=x_gk_BT_s\) and the substitution from A2, \[ P_{\mathrm{out}} =\frac{2\pi A R_\odot^2(k_BT_s)^4} {d_\odot^2c^2h^3} x_g\int_{x_g}^\infty x^2e^{-x}\,dx. \] Now \[ \int_{x_g}^\infty x^2e^{-x}\,dx =\left[-(x^2+2x+2)e^{-x}\right]_{x_g}^\infty =(x_g^2+2x_g+2)e^{-x_g}. \] Therefore, \[ \boxed{ P_{\mathrm{out}} =\frac{2\pi A R_\odot^2(k_BT_s)^4} {d_\odot^2c^2h^3} x_g(x_g^2+2x_g+2)e^{-x_g} }. \]

A5

Efficiency is useful output power divided by incident power: \[ \eta=\frac{P_{\mathrm{out}}}{P_{\mathrm{in}}}. \] The common dimensional and geometrical factors cancel, giving \[ \boxed{ \eta(x_g)=\frac{x_g(x_g^2+2x_g+2)e^{-x_g}}{6} },\qquad x_g\geq0. \]

A6

At zero band gap, \[ \boxed{\eta(0)=0}. \] Although photons can then excite electrons, the useful energy per electron is zero.

For large \(x_g\), \[ \eta(x_g)\sim\frac{x_g^3e^{-x_g}}6, \] so \[ \boxed{\lim_{x_g\to\infty}\eta(x_g)=0}. \] The exponentially small number of photons above the gap makes the useful output vanish.

Differentiating, \[ \eta'(x_g) =\frac{e^{-x_g}}6 \left(-x_g^3+x_g^2+2x_g+2\right). \] Thus \[ \boxed{\eta'(0)=\frac13}, \qquad \boxed{\lim_{x_g\to\infty}\eta'(x_g)=0\ \text{from below}}. \]

The sketch starts at the origin with tangent \(\eta=x_g/3\), rises to a single maximum near \(x_g=2.27\), and then decreases toward the horizontal asymptote \(\eta=0\), remaining positive. For additional shape information, \[ \eta''(x_g)=\frac{e^{-x_g}}6x_g^2(x_g-4), \] so the curve is concave downward for \(0<x_g<4\) and concave upward for \(x_g>4\).

Representative points are:

\(x_g\) \(\eta(x_g)\)
0 0
1 0.307
2 0.451
2.27 0.457
4 0.317
6 0.124
10 0.00923
\(\to\infty\) \(\to0\)

A7

At the maximum, \(\eta'(x_0)=0\). Since the exponential factor never vanishes, \[ -x_0^3+x_0^2+2x_0+2=0, \] or \[ \boxed{x_0^3-x_0^2-2x_0-2=0}. \]

For \(x_0>0\), this is equivalent to \[ x_0=1+\frac{2}{x_0}+\frac{2}{x_0^2}. \] The left-hand side increases strictly with \(x_0\), while the right-hand side decreases strictly. Therefore, there is only one positive stationary point. Together with the endpoint behaviour in A6, this establishes that it is the global maximum.

Let \(F(x)=x^3-x^2-2x-2\). Then \[ F(2)=-2,\qquad F(2.5)=2.375. \] Thus \(2<x_0<2.5\), already giving \(x_0=2.25\pm0.25\). Refinement gives \[ \boxed{x_0\simeq2.27}. \] Substituting into the efficiency, \[ \eta(x_0) =\frac{x_0(x_0^2+2x_0+2)e^{-x_0}}6 \simeq0.45703. \] Hence \[ \boxed{\eta_{\max}\simeq45.7\%}. \]

A8

At the surface temperature found in A1, \[ k_BT_s\simeq0.4966\ \mathrm{eV}. \] For silicon, \[ x_{g,\mathrm{Si}} =\frac{E_g}{k_BT_s} =\frac{1.11}{0.4966} \simeq2.235. \] Therefore, \[ \eta_{\mathrm{Si}} =\frac{2.235\left(2.235^2+2(2.235)+2\right)e^{-2.235}}6 \simeq0.45694. \] Thus \[ \boxed{\eta_{\mathrm{Si}}\simeq45.7\%}. \] This is very close to the maximum because the silicon gap is close to the optimal gap \(x_0k_BT_s\simeq1.13\ \mathrm{eV}\).

A9

Build the uniform sphere by bringing successive thin spherical shells from infinity. At radius \(r\), the mass already assembled is \[ M(r)=M_\odot\frac{r^3}{R_\odot^3}, \] and the shell mass is \[ dM=\frac{3M_\odot r^2}{R_\odot^3}\,dr. \] By the shell theorem, the potential energy added is \[ d\Omega=-\frac{GM(r)\,dM}{r}. \] Therefore, \[ \Omega =-\frac{3GM_\odot^2}{R_\odot^6} \int_0^{R_\odot}r^4\,dr =-\frac{3GM_\odot^2}{R_\odot^6} \frac{R_\odot^5}{5}. \] Hence \[ \boxed{\Omega=-\frac{3GM_\odot^2}{5R_\odot}} \simeq-2.29\times10^{41}\ \mathrm{J}. \] The negative sign corresponds to taking zero potential energy at infinite separation.

A10

The initial very extended cloud has approximately zero gravitational potential energy. Its contraction therefore releases at most \[ E_{\mathrm{available}}=-\Omega =\frac{3GM_\odot^2}{5R_\odot}. \] The maximum possible shining time follows by taking all this released energy to have been radiated. At constant luminosity, \[ L_\odot\tau_{\mathrm{KH}} =\frac{3GM_\odot^2}{5R_\odot}, \] so \[ \boxed{ \tau_{\mathrm{KH}} =\frac{3GM_\odot^2}{5R_\odot L_\odot} }. \] Numerically, \[ \tau_{\mathrm{KH}} =\frac{2.288\times10^{41}}{3.85\times10^{26}} \simeq5.94\times10^{14}\ \mathrm{s} =\boxed{1.88\times10^7\ \mathrm{years}}. \] Any released energy retained as internal energy would reduce the duration supported by gravitational contraction, so this is an upper bound.

B1

Neglecting energy carried away by neutrinos, the number of fusion reactions per second is \[ \dot N_{\mathrm{reaction}}=\frac{L_\odot}{\Delta E}. \] Each reaction produces two neutrinos: \[ \dot N_\nu=\frac{2L_\odot}{\Delta E}. \] For spherical emission, these neutrinos cross an area \(4\pi d_\odot^2\) at Earth’s distance. Thus \[ \boxed{ \Phi_\nu=\frac{2L_\odot}{4\pi d_\odot^2\Delta E} }. \] Substitution gives \[ \Phi_\nu =\frac{2(3.85\times10^{26})} {4\pi(1.50\times10^{11})^2(4.0\times10^{-12})} =\boxed{6.8\times10^{14}\ \mathrm{m^{-2}\,s^{-1}}}. \]

B2

After conversion, the fraction \(1-f\) remains as electron neutrinos and contributes \((1-f)N_1\) detections per year. The converted fraction contributes \(fN_1/6\), because its detection efficiency is six times smaller.

Consequently, \[ N_2=(1-f)N_1+\frac{fN_1}{6} =N_1\left(1-\frac{5f}{6}\right). \] Solving, \[ \boxed{ f=\frac65\left(1-\frac{N_2}{N_1}\right) }. \] The physical range \(0\leq f\leq1\) corresponds to \(N_1/6\leq N_2\leq N_1\).

B3

Cherenkov radiation ceases when the electron slows to the speed of light in water: \[ v_{\mathrm{th}}=\frac{c}{n}. \] The electron’s kinetic energy at that instant is relativistic: \[ K_{\mathrm{th}} =(\gamma_{\mathrm{th}}-1)m_ec^2, \qquad \gamma_{\mathrm{th}} =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v_{\mathrm{th}}^2/c^2}} =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-1/n^2}}. \]

During the emission time \(\Delta t\), the electron loses energy \(\alpha\Delta t\). Its initial kinetic energy immediately after the neutrino interaction is therefore \[ K_i=K_{\mathrm{th}}+\alpha\Delta t. \] Since the electron was initially at rest before the interaction, the energy imparted by the neutrino equals \(K_i\). Hence \[ \boxed{ E_{\mathrm{imparted}} =\alpha\Delta t+ m_ec^2\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-1/n^2}}-1\right) }. \] The second term is essential: the electron still has kinetic energy when Cherenkov emission stops.

B4

Use the stated model in which the energy spread comes from thermal motion of the Be sources. Let \(v_\parallel\) be the source velocity component toward Earth.

For a massless neutrino, momentum in the source rest frame is \(p_\nu=E_\nu/c\). To first order in the nonrelativistic source velocity, the Lorentz transformation of energy gives \[ E_{\mathrm{obs}}\simeq E_\nu+v_\parallel\frac{E_\nu}{c}. \] Thus the Doppler energy shift is \[ \delta E\simeq E_\nu\frac{v_\parallel}{c}. \]

The thermal motion is isotropic, so \[ \langle v_\parallel\rangle=0, \qquad \langle v_\parallel^2\rangle =\frac{\langle v^2\rangle}{3} =\frac{V_{\mathrm{Be}}^2}{3}. \] Taking the rms energy shift, \[ \Delta E_{\mathrm{rms}} =\frac{E_\nu}{c}\sqrt{\langle v_\parallel^2\rangle} =\frac{E_\nu V_{\mathrm{Be}}}{\sqrt3\,c}. \] Therefore, \[ \boxed{ V_{\mathrm{Be}} =\sqrt3\,c\frac{\Delta E_{\mathrm{rms}}}{E_\nu} }. \] Numerically, \[ \frac{\Delta E_{\mathrm{rms}}}{E_\nu} =\frac{5.54\times10^{-17}}{1.44\times10^{-13}} =3.847\times10^{-4}, \] and hence \[ \boxed{ V_{\mathrm{Be}}\simeq2.00\times10^5\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}} }. \] The ratio \(V_{\mathrm{Be}}/c\simeq6.66\times10^{-4}\) validates the nonrelativistic approximation.

By equipartition for the three translational degrees of freedom, \[ \frac12m_{\mathrm{Be}}V_{\mathrm{Be}}^2 =\frac32k_BT_c. \] Thus \[ T_c=\frac{m_{\mathrm{Be}}V_{\mathrm{Be}}^2}{3k_B} =\frac{m_{\mathrm{Be}}c^2}{k_B} \left(\frac{\Delta E_{\mathrm{rms}}}{E_\nu}\right)^2. \] Substituting the data, \[ T_c =\frac{(11.65\times10^{-27})(2.9979\times10^8)^2} {1.380649\times10^{-23}} \left(\frac{5.54\times10^{-17}}{1.44\times10^{-13}}\right)^2, \] which gives \[ \boxed{T_c\simeq1.12\times10^7\ \mathrm{K}}. \]

The solution was checked against the official solution.