IPhO 2012 · Theory problem 1

Focus on sketches

Problem T1. Focus on sketches (13 points)

Part A. Ballistics (4.5 points)

A ball, thrown with an initial speed \(v_0\), moves in a homogeneous gravitational field in the \(x\)-\(z\) plane, where the \(x\)-axis is horizontal, and the \(z\)-axis is vertical and antiparallel to the free fall acceleration \(g\). Neglect the effect of air drag.

i. (0.8 pts) By adjusting the launching angle for a ball thrown with a fixed initial speed \(v_0\) from the origin, targets can be hit within the region given by

\[ z\leq z_0-kx^2. \]

You can use this fact without proving it. Find the constants \(z_0\) and \(k\).

ii. (1.2 pts) The launching point can now be freely selected on the ground level \(z=0\), and the launching angle can be adjusted as needed. The aim is to hit the topmost point of a spherical building of radius \(R\) (see fig.) with the minimal initial speed \(v_0\). Bouncing off the roof prior to hitting the target is not allowed. Sketch qualitatively the shape of the optimal trajectory of the ball (use the designated box on the answer sheet). Note that the marks are given only for the sketch.

Figure 1

iii. (2.5 pts) What is the minimal launching speed \(v_{\min}\) needed to hit the topmost point of a spherical building of radius \(R\)?

Figure 2

La Géode, Parc de la Villette, Paris. Photo: katchooo/flickr.com

Part B. Air flow around a wing (4 points)

For this part of the problem, the following information may be useful. For a flow of liquid or gas in a tube along a streamline, \(p+\rho gh+\frac12\rho v^2=\text{const.}\), assuming that the velocity \(v\) is much less than the speed of sound. Here \(\rho\) is the density, \(h\) is the height, \(g\) is free fall acceleration and \(p\) is hydrostatic pressure. Streamlines are defined as the trajectories of fluid particles (assuming that the flow pattern is stationary). Note that the term \(\frac12\rho v^2\) is called the dynamic pressure.

In the fig. shown below, a cross-section of an aircraft wing is depicted together with streamlines of the air flow around the wing, as seen in the wing’s reference frame. Assume that (a) the air flow is purely two-dimensional (i.e. that the velocity vectors of air lie in the plane of the figure); (b) the streamline pattern is independent of the aircraft speed; (c) there is no wind; (d) the dynamic pressure is much smaller than the atmospheric pressure, \(p_0=1.0\times10^5\,\mathrm{Pa}\).

You can use a ruler to take measurements from the fig. on the answer sheet.

Figure 3

i. (0.8 pts) If the aircraft’s ground speed is \(v_0=100\,\mathrm{m/s}\), what is the speed of the air, \(v_P\), at the point \(P\) (marked in the fig.) with respect to the ground?

ii. (1.2 pts) In the case of high relative humidity, as the ground speed of the aircraft increases over a critical value \(v_{\mathrm{crit}}\), a stream of water droplets is created behind the wing. The droplets emerge at a certain point \(Q\). Mark the point \(Q\) in the fig. on the answer sheet. Explain qualitatively (using formulae and as little text as possible) how you determined the position of \(Q\).

iii. (2.0 pts) Estimate the critical speed \(v_{\mathrm{crit}}\) using the following data: relative humidity of the air is \(r=90\%\), specific heat capacity of air at constant pressure \(c_p=1.00\times10^3\,\mathrm{J/kg\cdot K}\), pressure of saturated water vapour: \(p_{sa}=2.31\,\mathrm{kPa}\) at the temperature of the unperturbed air \(T_a=293\,\mathrm K\) and \(p_{sb}=2.46\,\mathrm{kPa}\) at \(T_b=294\,\mathrm K\). Depending on your approximations, you may also need the specific heat capacity of air at constant volume \(c_V=0.717\times10^3\,\mathrm{J/kg\cdot K}\). Note that the relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the vapour pressure to the saturated vapour pressure at the given temperature. Saturated vapour pressure is defined as the vapour pressure by which vapour is in equilibrium with the liquid.

Part C. Magnetic straws (4.5 points)

Consider a cylindrical tube made of a superconducting material. The length of the tube is \(l\) and the inner radius is \(r\) with \(l\gg r\). The centre of the tube coincides with the origin, and its axis coincides with the \(z\)-axis.

Figure 4

There is a magnetic flux \(\Phi\) through the central cross-section of the tube, \(z=0\), \(x^2+y^2<r^2\). A superconductor is a material which expels any magnetic field (the field is zero inside the material).

i. (0.8 pts) Sketch five such magnetic field lines, which pass through the five red dots marked on the axial cross-section of the tube, on the designated diagram on the answer sheet.

ii. (1.2 pts) Find the tension force \(T\) along the \(z\)-axis in the middle of the tube (i.e. the force by which two halves of the tube, \(z>0\) and \(z<0\), interact with each other).

iii. (2.5 pts) Consider another tube, identical and parallel to the first one.

Figure 5

The second tube has the same magnetic field but in the opposite direction and its centre is placed at \(y=l\), \(x=z=0\) (so that the tubes form opposite sides of a square). Determine the magnetic interaction force \(F\) between the two tubes.

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • A.i. \(\displaystyle z_0=\frac{v_0^2}{2g},\qquad k=\frac{g}{2v_0^2}.\)
  • A.ii. The optimal parabola rises from the ground, grazes the upper side of the building tangentially, rises slightly farther, and then descends onto the topmost point. For approach from the left, its equation is \[ z=2R-\frac{x}{\sqrt3}-\frac{4x^2}{3R}. \]
  • A.iii. \(\displaystyle \boxed{v_{\min}=3\sqrt{\frac{gR}{2}}}.\)
  • B.i. \(\displaystyle \boxed{v_P\approx20\,\mathrm{m/s}}\), approximately in the aircraft’s direction of motion.
  • B.ii. Place \(Q\) immediately above the rounded leading edge, where the streamlines on the upper side are closest together: the speed is greatest and the temperature lowest.
  • B.iii. \(\displaystyle \boxed{v_{\mathrm{crit}}\approx35\,\mathrm{m/s}}\), using a maximum local speed about twice the aircraft speed and including the change in vapour partial pressure. Neglecting that pressure change gives approximately \(32\,\mathrm{m/s}\).
  • C.i. Draw nearly parallel axial lines inside the bore. The four off-axis lines spread out beyond the ends and return around the outside, without entering the superconducting wall. The central axial line remains straight.
  • C.ii. \(\displaystyle \boxed{T\simeq\frac{\Phi^2}{2\mu_0\pi r^2}}\), attracting the two halves.
  • C.iii. The tubes attract with \[ \boxed{F\simeq\frac{\Phi^2}{4\pi\mu_0l^2} \left(2-\frac1{\sqrt2}\right)}. \] The magnetic results use the long, narrow tube approximation.

Solution

A.i.

For launch angle \(\theta\), eliminating time from projectile motion gives

\[ z=x\tan\theta-\frac{gx^2}{2v_0^2\cos^2\theta}. \]

Writing \(u=\tan\theta\),

\[ z=xu-\frac{gx^2}{2v_0^2}(1+u^2). \]

At fixed \(x\ne0\), this quadratic is maximized when

\[ u=\frac{v_0^2}{gx}. \]

Substitution gives the envelope

\[ z_{\mathrm{env}}=\frac{v_0^2}{2g}-\frac{gx^2}{2v_0^2}. \]

At \(x=0\), its height is also the maximum height of a vertical throw. Therefore,

\[ \boxed{z_0=\frac{v_0^2}{2g}},\qquad \boxed{k=\frac{g}{2v_0^2}}. \]

A.ii.

Put the centre of the building at \((0,R)\), so its top is \((0,2R)\). Choose a launch point to the left; reflection about the \(z\)-axis gives an equally good trajectory.

The required sketch is a downward-opening parabola with these features:

  1. It starts on the ground to the left of the building and rises steeply.
  2. It grazes the upper-left surface tangentially, with no change of velocity from an impact.
  3. It continues upward to an apex slightly above and to the left of the building’s top.
  4. It then descends to the topmost point.

The exact landmarks, derived below, are:

Landmark \(x/R\) \(z/R\)
Launch \(\displaystyle-\frac{\sqrt3+3\sqrt{11}}8\approx-1.460\) \(0\)
Tangential grazing point \(\displaystyle-\frac{\sqrt3}{2}\approx-0.866\) \(\displaystyle\frac32\)
Apex \(\displaystyle-\frac{\sqrt3}{8}\approx-0.217\) \(\displaystyle\frac{33}{16}=2.0625\)
Target \(0\) \(2\)

A.iii.

Let \(v_t\) be the speed when the ball reaches the target. Conservation of mechanical energy gives

\[ \frac12mv_0^2=\frac12mv_t^2+mg(2R), \]

so

\[ v_0^2=v_t^2+4gR. \]

Thus minimizing the launching speed is equivalent to minimizing \(v_t\).

Reverse the motion. We now launch a projectile from \((0,2R)\) with speed \(v_t\). By A.i, every such trajectory lies below the envelope

\[ z_{\mathrm{env}}(x) =2R+\frac{v_t^2}{2g}-\frac{gx^2}{2v_t^2}. \]

A trajectory approaching the target from the left must clear the upper surface

\[ z_s(x)=R+\sqrt{R^2-x^2}, \qquad -R\le x\le0. \]

Consequently, the envelope must also clear that surface.

Define

\[ \lambda=\frac{v_t^2}{gR}, \qquad c=\sqrt{1-\frac{x^2}{R^2}}, \qquad 0\le c\le1. \]

The difference between envelope and roof is

\[ \begin{aligned} \frac{z_{\mathrm{env}}-z_s}{R} &=1+\frac{\lambda}{2} -\frac{1-c^2}{2\lambda}-c\\ &=\frac{(c-\lambda)^2+2\lambda-1}{2\lambda}. \end{aligned} \]

If \(0<\lambda<1/2\), choosing \(c=\lambda\) makes this negative. No trajectory can then clear the building. Hence

\[ v_t^2\ge\frac{gR}{2}. \]

At equality, the envelope touches the roof at \(c=1/2\), namely

\[ (x,z)=\left(-\frac{\sqrt3}{2}R,\frac32R\right). \]

We must also show that one actual trajectory attains the bound. Launching the reversed projectile \(30^\circ\) above the horizontal towards the left gives, in the original coordinates,

\[ \boxed{z(x)=2R-\frac{x}{\sqrt3}-\frac{4x^2}{3R}}. \]

This parabola passes through the target and is tangent to the sphere at the point above. To verify that it never penetrates the building, set \(t=-x/R\ge0\). Direct substitution gives

\[ \frac{x^2+(z-R)^2-R^2}{R^2} = \frac{16}{9}\, t\left(t+\frac{\sqrt3}{2}\right) \left(t-\frac{\sqrt3}{2}\right)^2 \ge0. \]

Thus the entire relevant trajectory is outside the sphere, with tangential contact before the target. No bounce is needed.

Finally,

\[ v_{\min}^2=\frac{gR}{2}+4gR=\frac92gR, \]

and therefore

\[ \boxed{v_{\min}=3\sqrt{\frac{gR}{2}}}. \]

The intercept and apex of this parabola give the landmarks listed in A.ii.

B.i.

Let \(u\) denote air speed in the wing’s frame. Because the pressure changes are small compared with atmospheric pressure, we first treat the density as constant.

For a narrow stream tube of unit span, continuity gives

\[ u\,d=v_0d_\infty, \]

where \(d\) is the spacing between adjacent streamlines, measured perpendicular to the flow, and \(d_\infty\) is their undisturbed upstream spacing. Thus

\[ u=v_0\frac{d_\infty}{d}. \]

From the supplied figure, the spacing near \(P\) is approximately \(1.25\) times the upstream spacing:

\[ u_P\approx0.80v_0\approx80\,\mathrm{m/s}. \]

Take the undisturbed flow in the wing’s frame to point rightwards. The aircraft then moves leftwards relative to the ground, so the velocity transformation is

\[ \boldsymbol v_{P,\mathrm{ground}} =\boldsymbol u_P-v_0\hat{\boldsymbol x}. \]

The streamlines at \(P\) are nearly horizontal. Therefore,

\[ \boxed{v_P\approx|80-100| =20\,\mathrm{m/s}}, \]

approximately leftwards, in the aircraft’s direction of motion.

If the small local inclination is retained, the corresponding expression is

\[ v_P=\sqrt{u_P^2+v_0^2-2u_Pv_0\cos\theta_P}. \]

B.ii.

Neglect gravitational potential differences across the wing. Continuity and Bernoulli’s equation give

\[ u\propto\frac1d, \qquad p=p_0+\frac12\rho(v_0^2-u^2). \]

For approximately adiabatic flow, conservation of stagnation enthalpy gives

\[ c_pT+\frac{u^2}{2} =c_pT_a+\frac{v_0^2}{2}. \]

Hence

\[ d\ \text{smallest} \quad\Longrightarrow\quad u\ \text{largest} \quad\Longrightarrow\quad p,T\ \text{smallest}. \]

The saturation vapour pressure falls rapidly with temperature, so the relative humidity reaches unity first there.

Place \(Q\) just above the rounded leading edge, in the region of minimum streamline spacing on the upper side of the wing. The emerging droplets are subsequently carried downstream.

B.iii.

We model the air as an ideal gas undergoing approximately adiabatic, reversible expansion before condensation begins. Its specific gas constant is

\[ R_{\mathrm{air}}=c_p-c_V =283\,\mathrm{J\,kg^{-1}\,K^{-1}}. \]

Let the cooling at \(Q\) be \(\Delta T=T_a-T_Q>0\). The supplied saturation-pressure data give the local slope

\[ s=\frac{p_{sb}-p_{sa}}{T_b-T_a} =\frac{2460-2310}{294-293} =150\,\mathrm{Pa/K}. \]

Using a linear extrapolation,

\[ p_s(T_Q)\approx p_{sa}-s\Delta T. \]

Before condensation, the water-vapour mole fraction is unchanged, so its partial pressure scales with total pressure:

\[ p_{v,Q}=r p_{sa}\frac{p_Q}{p_0}. \]

The ideal-gas adiabatic relation gives

\[ \frac{p_Q}{p_0} =\left(\frac{T_Q}{T_a}\right)^{c_p/R_{\mathrm{air}}} \approx 1-\frac{c_p}{R_{\mathrm{air}}T_a}\Delta T. \]

At the onset of condensation, \(p_{v,Q}=p_s(T_Q)\). Therefore,

\[ r p_{sa} \left(1-\frac{c_p\Delta T}{R_{\mathrm{air}}T_a}\right) =p_{sa}-s\Delta T, \]

which yields

\[ \Delta T = \frac{(1-r)p_{sa}} {s-rp_{sa}c_p/(R_{\mathrm{air}}T_a)}. \]

Numerically,

\[ \Delta T = \frac{0.10(2310)} {150-\dfrac{0.90(2310)(1000)}{283(293)}} \approx1.85\,\mathrm K. \]

Thus condensation begins at approximately \(291.2\,\mathrm K\).

Let

\[ \alpha=\frac{u_Q}{v_0}\approx\frac{d_\infty}{d_Q}. \]

The narrowest spacing in the drawing is approximately half the undisturbed spacing, giving \(\alpha\approx2\). The energy equation then gives

\[ c_p\Delta T =\frac12(u_Q^2-v_{\mathrm{crit}}^2) =\frac12(\alpha^2-1)v_{\mathrm{crit}}^2. \]

Consequently,

\[ \boxed{ v_{\mathrm{crit}} =\sqrt{\frac{2c_p\Delta T}{\alpha^2-1}} \approx \sqrt{\frac{2(1000)(1.85)}{4-1}} \approx35\,\mathrm{m/s} }. \]

The corresponding pressure decrease is about \(2.2\%\), consistent with treating density changes as small for the graphical velocity estimate.

A simpler approximation holds the vapour partial pressure constant. It gives

\[ \Delta T\approx\frac{(1-r)p_{sa}}s=1.54\,\mathrm K, \qquad v_{\mathrm{crit}}\approx32\,\mathrm{m/s}. \]

Both estimates place the threshold at a few tens of metres per second; the pressure-corrected estimate is about \(35\,\mathrm{m/s}\).

C.i.

Choose the flux direction to be \(+z\) inside the tube; reversing every arrow gives the opposite convention.

Far from the ends, the field in the bore is nearly uniform and axial. Draw five nearly straight, parallel lines through the marked dots.

At the openings:

  • The two off-axis lines on each side fan outward beyond the upper end, curve down around the exterior, and return through the lower opening.
  • The pattern is symmetric about the axis and about the middle plane.
  • Lines passing closer to the axis form larger exterior loops.
  • No line crosses the superconducting wall; the field is tangent to its surfaces.

For the dot on the axis, axial symmetry requires a straight line along the \(z\)-axis. It extends to infinity in both directions; it has no finite endpoint. Arrows on the other lines point upward inside the bore and downward along their exterior return portions.

C.ii.

Write the bore area as

\[ A=\pi r^2. \]

Since \(l\gg r\), the central field is approximately uniform:

\[ B=\frac{\Phi}{A}. \]

The Maxwell stress along a magnetic field is tensile, with magnitude

\[ \sigma_\parallel=\frac{B^2}{2\mu_0}. \]

Integrating this stress over the central bore gives the attraction between the halves:

\[ T\simeq\frac{B^2A}{2\mu_0} =\boxed{\frac{\Phi^2}{2\mu_0\pi r^2}}. \]

The weak exterior return field produces a small correction in the long-tube limit.

The result also follows from magnetic energy. At fixed trapped flux and cross-section,

\[ U\simeq\frac{B^2}{2\mu_0}Al =\frac{\Phi^2l}{2\mu_0A}. \]

Increasing the tube’s length requires work \(T\,dl=dU\), giving the same tension.

C.iii.

At distances large compared with the tube radius, the flux emerging from an end behaves as the field of an effective magnetic pole. Its strength is

\[ q_m=\frac{\Phi}{\mu_0}, \]

because its radial field is

\[ B(s)=\frac{\mu_0q_m}{4\pi s^2} =\frac{\Phi}{4\pi s^2}. \]

These are equivalent sources for the exterior field; no actual magnetic monopoles are required. The two ends have opposite signs.

The force between two such effective poles separated by \(s\) has magnitude

\[ \frac{\mu_0q_m^2}{4\pi s^2} =\frac{\Phi^2}{4\pi\mu_0s^2}. \]

Set

\[ K=\frac{\Phi^2}{4\pi\mu_0}. \]

For the antiparallel tubes, all four end-to-end interactions must be included:

End pairs Separation Interaction Combined component towards the other tube
Upper–upper and lower–lower \(l\) Attraction \(\displaystyle \frac{2K}{l^2}\)
Upper–lower and lower–upper \(\sqrt2\,l\) Repulsion \(\displaystyle-\frac{K}{\sqrt2\,l^2}\)

For each diagonal pair, the force magnitude is \(K/(2l^2)\), and its transverse component is this magnitude multiplied by \(\cos45^\circ\). Their vertical components cancel.

Therefore,

\[ \boxed{ F\simeq \frac{\Phi^2}{4\pi\mu_0l^2} \left(2-\frac1{\sqrt2}\right) }. \]

The force is attractive: it acts in the \(+y\) direction on the first tube and in the \(-y\) direction on the second.

The solution was checked against the official solution.