IPhO 2003 · Theory problem 3

Neutrino Mass and Neutron Decay (Part A); Light Levitation (Part B)

Part A

Neutrino Mass and Neutron Decay

A free neutron of mass \(m_n\) decays at rest in the laboratory frame of reference into three non-interacting particles: a proton, an electron, and an anti-neutrino. The rest mass of the proton is \(m_p\), while the rest mass of the anti-neutrino \(m_v\) is assumed to be nonzero and much smaller than the rest mass of the electron \(m_e\). Denote the speed of light in vacuum by \(c\). The measured values of mass are as follows:

\[ m_n=939.56563\ \mathrm{MeV}/c^2,\quad m_p=938.27231\ \mathrm{MeV}/c^2,\quad m_e=0.5109907\ \mathrm{MeV}/c^2 \]

In the following, all energies and velocities are referred to the laboratory frame. Let \(E\) be the total energy of the electron coming out of the decay.

(a) Find the maximum possible value \(E_{\max}\) of \(E\) and the speed \(v_m\) of the anti-neutrino when \(E=E_{\max}\). Both answers must be expressed in terms of the rest masses of the particles and the speed of light. Given that \(m_v<7.3\ \mathrm{eV}/c^2\), compute \(E_{\max}\) and the ratio \(v_m/c\) to 3 significant digits.

(4.0 points)

Part B

Light Levitation

A transparent glass hemisphere with radius \(R\) and mass \(m\) has an index of refraction \(n\). In the medium outside the hemisphere, the index of refraction is equal to one. A parallel beam of monochromatic laser light is incident uniformly and normally onto the central portion of its planar surface, as shown in Figure 3. The acceleration of gravity \(\vec g\) is vertically downwards. The radius \(\delta\) of the circular cross-section of the laser beam is much smaller than \(R\). Both the glass hemisphere and the laser beam are axially symmetric with respect to the \(z\)-axis.

The glass hemisphere does not absorb any laser light. Its surface has been coated with a thin layer of transparent material so that reflections are negligible when light enters and leaves the glass hemisphere. The optical path traversed by laser light passing through the non-reflecting surface layer is also negligible.

(b) Neglecting terms of the order \((\delta/R)^3\) or higher, find the laser power \(P\) needed to balance the weight of the glass hemisphere.

(4.0 points)

Hint: \(\cos\theta\approx 1-\theta^2/2\) when \(\theta\) is much smaller than one.

Figure 1

Figure 3

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • (a) The maximum total electron energy is \[ \boxed{E_{\max}= \frac{m_n^2+m_e^2-(m_p+m_v)^2}{2m_n}\,c^2.} \] At this endpoint, the anti-neutrino and proton have the same velocity, with speed \[ \boxed{ v_m=c\, \frac{\sqrt{\left[m_n^2-(m_p+m_v+m_e)^2\right] \left[m_n^2-(m_p+m_v-m_e)^2\right]}} {m_n^2+(m_p+m_v)^2-m_e^2}. } \] To three significant digits, \[ \boxed{E_{\max}=1.29\ \mathrm{MeV},\qquad \frac{v_m}{c}=1.27\times10^{-3}.} \]

  • (b) To the requested order, \[ \boxed{P=\frac{4mgcR^2}{(n-1)^2\delta^2}.} \]

Solution

(a) Neutrino Mass and Neutron Decay

Let the electron momentum have magnitude \(p_e\). Conservation of energy and momentum gives \[ E_p+E_v=m_nc^2-E,\qquad \boldsymbol p_p+\boldsymbol p_v=-\boldsymbol p_e. \]

Denote the invariant mass of the proton–anti-neutrino pair by \(\mathcal M\). Using the electron energy–momentum relation, \[ p_e^2c^2=E^2-m_e^2c^4, \] we obtain \[ \begin{aligned} \mathcal M^2c^4 &=(E_p+E_v)^2-c^2|\boldsymbol p_p+\boldsymbol p_v|^2\\ &=(m_nc^2-E)^2-p_e^2c^2\\ &=(m_n^2+m_e^2)c^4-2m_nc^2E. \end{aligned} \] Consequently, \[ E=\frac{m_n^2+m_e^2-\mathcal M^2}{2m_n}\,c^2. \] The electron energy is therefore largest when \(\mathcal M\) is smallest.

In the pair’s centre-of-momentum frame, the proton and anti-neutrino have equal and opposite momenta of magnitude \(q\). Thus \[ \mathcal Mc^2 =\sqrt{m_p^2c^4+q^2c^2} +\sqrt{m_v^2c^4+q^2c^2} \geq(m_p+m_v)c^2. \] Equality holds when \(q=0\): both particles are at rest in this frame, so they have the same velocity in the laboratory frame. This configuration is kinematically allowed because \(m_n>m_p+m_v+m_e\).

Writing \(M=m_p+m_v\), the endpoint energy is therefore \[ \boxed{E_{\max}=\frac{m_n^2+m_e^2-M^2}{2m_n}\,c^2.} \]

At the endpoint, the pair has energy \(m_nc^2-E_{\max}\) and momentum magnitude \(p_e\). Its common speed, which is the anti-neutrino speed, follows from \(\boldsymbol v=c^2\boldsymbol p/E_{\text{total}}\): \[ \frac{v_m}{c} =\frac{p_ec}{m_nc^2-E_{\max}} =\frac{\sqrt{E_{\max}^2-m_e^2c^4}} {m_nc^2-E_{\max}}. \] Substitution gives \[ \boxed{ v_m=c\, \frac{\sqrt{\left[m_n^2-(M+m_e)^2\right] \left[m_n^2-(M-m_e)^2\right]}} {m_n^2+M^2-m_e^2}, \qquad M=m_p+m_v. } \]

For the numerical evaluation, the limit \(m_v\to0^+\) gives \[ E_{\max}\simeq1.29256882\ \mathrm{MeV},\qquad \frac{v_m}{c}\simeq1.26538356\times10^{-3}. \] Increasing \(m_vc^2\) from zero to its upper bound of \(7.3\ \mathrm{eV}\) decreases these values by less than \(7.30\ \mathrm{eV}\) and \(8.5\times10^{-9}\), respectively. Hence the entire permitted mass range gives, to three significant digits, \[ \boxed{E_{\max}=1.29\ \mathrm{MeV},\qquad v_m/c=1.27\times10^{-3}.} \]

Here \(E_{\max}\) is the electron’s total energy. The anti-neutrino is slow at this endpoint despite its tiny mass: its momentum is also tiny, as required for it to share the proton’s velocity.

(b) Light Levitation

Consider a ray entering the hemisphere at distance \(r\) from the \(z\)-axis, where \(0\leq r\leq\delta\). It enters the planar surface normally and therefore continues vertically inside the glass.

At the spherical surface, let \(\theta\) be the angle between the incident ray and the outward normal. Geometry gives \[ \sin\theta=\frac rR. \] If \(\theta'\) is the angle of the emerging ray relative to that normal, Snell’s law gives \[ \sin\theta'=n\sin\theta=n\frac rR. \] For glass with \(n>1\), the emerging ray bends towards the axis. Its angle from the upward vertical has magnitude \[ \alpha=\theta'-\theta. \] Since \(r/R\leq\delta/R\ll1\), expansion at fixed \(n\) gives \[ \alpha=(n-1)\frac rR +O\!\left(\frac{r^3}{R^3}\right). \]

Both before entering and after leaving the hemisphere, light has momentum equal to its energy divided by \(c\). Absorption and reflection are negligible, so a ray bundle carrying power \(dP\) has incoming vertical momentum flux \(dP/c\) and outgoing vertical momentum flux \((dP/c)\cos\alpha\).

By momentum conservation, its upward force on the hemisphere is \[ dF_z=\frac{dP}{c}(1-\cos\alpha). \] Using the given small-angle approximation, \[ 1-\cos\alpha \simeq\frac{\alpha^2}{2} \simeq\frac{(n-1)^2r^2}{2R^2}. \] The transverse force components cancel by axial symmetry.

The incident intensity is uniform: \[ I=\frac{P}{\pi\delta^2}. \] An annulus of radius \(r\) and width \(dr\) therefore carries power \[ dP=I\,2\pi r\,dr. \] Integrating the vertical force over the beam, \[ \begin{aligned} F_z &\simeq \int_0^\delta \frac{I\,2\pi r\,dr}{c} \frac{(n-1)^2r^2}{2R^2}\\ &=\frac{\pi I(n-1)^2}{cR^2} \int_0^\delta r^3\,dr\\ &=\frac{P(n-1)^2\delta^2}{4cR^2}. \end{aligned} \] This retains the contribution of order \((\delta/R)^2\); the next correction to \(F_z/(P/c)\) is of order \((\delta/R)^4\).

Balancing this upward force against the weight, \[ mg=\frac{P(n-1)^2\delta^2}{4cR^2}, \] yields \[ \boxed{P=\frac{4mgcR^2}{(n-1)^2\delta^2}.} \]

The solution was checked against the official solution.