IPhO 2001 · Theory problem 1

Four short problems: 1a Klystron, 1b Intermolecular distance, 1c Simple sawtooth signal generator, 1d Atomic beam

1a) KLYSTRON

Klystrons are devices used for amplifying very high-frequency signals. A klystron basically consists of two identical pairs of parallel plates (cavities) separated by a distance \(b\), as shown in the figure.

Figure 1

An electron beam with an initial speed \(v_0\) traverses the entire system, passing through small holes in the plates. The high-frequency voltage to be amplified is applied to both pairs of plates with a certain phase difference (where period \(T\) corresponds to \(2\pi\) phase) between them, producing horizontal, alternating electric fields in the cavities. The electrons entering the input cavity when the electric field is to the right are retarded and vice versa, so that the emerging electrons form bunches at a certain distance. If the output cavity is placed at the bunching point, the electric field in this cavity will absorb power from the beam provided that its phase is appropriately chosen. Let the voltage signal be a square wave with period \(T=1.0\times10^{-9}\ \mathrm{s}\), changing between \(V=\pm0.5\) volts. The initial velocity of the electrons is \(v_0=2.0\times10^6\ \mathrm{m/s}\) and the charge to mass ratio is \(e/m=1.76\times10^{11}\ \mathrm{C/kg}\). The distance \(\alpha\) is so small that the transit time in the cavities can be neglected. Keeping 4 significant figures, calculate;

a) the distance \(b\), where the electrons bunch. Copy your result onto the answer form. [1.5 pts]

b) the necessary phase difference to be provided by the phase shifter. Copy your result onto the answer form. [1.0 pts]

1b) INTERMOLECULAR DISTANCE

Let \(d_L\) and \(d_V\) represent the average distances between molecules of water in the liquid phase and in the vapor phase, respectively. Assume that both phases are at \(100\ ^\circ\mathrm{C}\) and atmospheric pressure, and the vapor behaves like an ideal gas. Using the following data, calculate the ratio \(d_V/d_L\) and copy your result onto the answer form. [2.5 pts]

Density of water in liquid phase: \(\rho_L=1.0\times10^3\ \mathrm{kg/m^3}\),

Molar mass of water: \(M=1.8\times10^{-2}\ \mathrm{kg/mol}\)
Atmospheric pressure: \(P_a=1.0\times10^5\ \mathrm{N/m^2}\)
Gas constant: \(R=8.3\) J/mol. K
Avagadro’s number: \(N_A=6.0\times10^{23}\) /mol

1c) SIMPLE SAWTOOTH SIGNAL GENERATOR

A sawtooth voltage waveform \(V_0\) can be obtained across the capacitor \(C\) in Fig. 1. \(R\) is a variable resistor, \(V_i\) is an ideal battery, and \(SG\) is a spark gap consisting of two electrodes with an adjustable distance between them. When the voltage across the electrodes exceeds the firing voltage \(V_f\), the air between the electrodes breaks down, hence the gap becomes a short circuit and remains so until the voltage across the gap becomes very small.

Figure 2

Figure 1

a) Draw the voltage waveform \(V_0\) versus time \(t\), after the switch is closed. [0.5 pts]

b) What condition must be satisfied in order to have an almost linearly varying sawtooth voltage waveform \(V_0\)? Copy your result onto the answer form. [0.2 pts]

c) Provided that this condition is satisfied, derive a simplified expression for the period \(T\) of the waveform. Copy your result onto the answer form. [0.4 pts]

d) What should you vary( \(R\) and/or \(SG\) ) to change the period only? Copy your result onto the answer form. [0.2 pts]

e) What should you vary ( \(R\) and/or \(SG\) ) to change the amplitude only? Copy your result onto the answer form. [0.2 pts]

f) You are given an additional, adjustable DC voltage supply. Design and draw a new circuit indicating the terminals where you would obtain the voltage waveform \(V_0'\) described in Fig. 2. [1.0 pts]

Figure 3

Figure 2

1d) ATOMIC BEAM

An atomic beam is prepared by heating a collection of atoms to a temperature \(T\) and allowing them to emerge horizontally through a small hole (of atomic dimensions) of diameter \(D\) in one side of the oven. Estimate the diameter of the beam after it has traveled a horizontal length \(L\) along its path. The mass of an atom is \(M\). Copy your result onto the answer form. [2.5 pts]

Figure 4

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 1a(a): \[ \boxed{b=2.270\times10^{-2}\ \mathrm{m}=2.270\ \mathrm{cm}}. \]

  • 1a(b): The output field must lag the input field by \[ \boxed{\Delta\phi_{\mathrm{lag}}=3.821\ \mathrm{rad}=218.9^\circ} \] modulo \(2\pi\). Equivalently, it may lead by \(2.462\ \mathrm{rad}=141.1^\circ\). The output’s retarding half-cycle must coincide with the arriving bunch.

  • 1b: \[ \boxed{\frac{d_V}{d_L} =\left(\frac{\rho_LRT}{P_aM}\right)^{1/3} \simeq 12}. \]

  • 1c(a): Repeated, concave-down exponential rises from approximately \(0\) to \(V_f\), followed by nearly vertical drops to \(0\). Each charging segment is \[ V_0=V_i\left(1-e^{-\tau/(RC)}\right), \] where \(\tau\) is the time since the last discharge.

  • 1c(b): \[ \boxed{V_f\ll V_i}. \]

  • 1c(c): \[ \boxed{T\simeq RC\,\frac{V_f}{V_i}}. \]

  • 1c(d): Vary \(R\) only, keeping the spark gap fixed.

  • 1c(e): Vary both \(SG\) and \(R\): change the gap to change \(V_f\), and adjust \(R\) so that \[ \boxed{RV_f=\text{constant}} \] in the linear-ramp approximation.

  • 1c(f): Set the additional supply to \(V_f\), with its negative terminal connected to the original lower rail. Measure the output with its positive terminal at the additional supply’s positive terminal and its negative terminal at the capacitor’s upper terminal. Then \[ \boxed{V_0'=V_f-V_0}, \] giving a descending ramp from \(V_f\) to \(0\), followed by an abrupt return to \(V_f\).

  • 1d: Using a representative thermal speed \(v_{\mathrm{th}}=\sqrt{3k_BT/M}\), the diffraction estimate is \[ \boxed{ d_{\mathrm{beam}}\sim D+\frac{2hL}{D\sqrt{3Mk_BT}} }. \] Thus, when diffraction dominates the initial diameter, \[ \boxed{d_{\mathrm{beam}}\sim\frac{hL}{D\sqrt{Mk_BT}}}, \] up to a numerical factor depending on the beam-width convention.

Solution

1a) Klystron

(a) Bunching distance

Let \(e\) denote the magnitude of the electron charge and let \(U=0.5\ \mathrm{V}\). Neglect space-charge effects and the transit time through either cavity, as intended in the problem.

Nonrelativistic energy conservation gives the two possible speeds after the input cavity:

\[ \frac12mv_s^2=\frac12mv_0^2-eU, \qquad \frac12mv_f^2=\frac12mv_0^2+eU, \]

where \(v_s\) and \(v_f\) are the slow and fast speeds. Hence

\[ v_s=\sqrt{v_0^2-2(e/m)U} =1.955505\ldots\times10^6\ \mathrm{m/s}, \]

\[ v_f=\sqrt{v_0^2+2(e/m)U} =2.043526\ldots\times10^6\ \mathrm{m/s}. \]

Choose the input field to retard electrons during \(0\leq t<T/2\), and to accelerate them during \(T/2\leq t<T\).

A slow electron entering at time \(t_0\) and a fast electron entering at \(t_0+T/2\) reach the output together when

\[ t_0+\frac{b}{v_s} =t_0+\frac{T}{2}+\frac{b}{v_f}. \]

Therefore,

\[ b\left(\frac1{v_s}-\frac1{v_f}\right)=\frac{T}{2}, \]

so that

\[ \boxed{b=\frac{T\,v_sv_f}{2(v_f-v_s)}}. \]

For a square-wave modulation, this condition makes the entire slow half-cycle packet overlap in arrival time with the following fast half-cycle packet. It is the first maximum-bunching distance; the bunch has finite duration rather than being an instantaneous pulse.

Substitution, retaining extra digits until the final step, gives

\[ b=0.022699764\ldots\ \mathrm{m}. \]

Thus, to four significant figures,

\[ \boxed{b=0.02270\ \mathrm{m}=2.270\ \mathrm{cm}}. \]

(b) Phase difference

The slow and fast flight times across the drift region are

\[ \tau_s=\frac{b}{v_s}=11.6081337\ldots\,T, \qquad \tau_f=\frac{b}{v_f}=11.1081337\ldots\,T. \]

The slow packet reaches the output during

\[ [\tau_s,\tau_s+T/2), \]

while the following fast packet reaches it during

\[ [T/2+\tau_f,T+\tau_f). \]

These intervals coincide because \(\tau_s-\tau_f=T/2\).

To extract energy from the beam, the output electric field must point to the right throughout this occupied half-cycle, thereby retarding the electrons. Thus its waveform must reproduce the input waveform delayed by \(\tau_s\):

\[ E_{\mathrm{out}}(t)=E_{\mathrm{in}}(t-\tau_s). \]

Only the fractional part of \(\tau_s/T\) matters:

\[ \frac{\tau_s\bmod T}{T}=0.6081337\ldots. \]

The required output phase lag is therefore

\[ \Delta\phi_{\mathrm{lag}} =2\pi(0.6081337\ldots) =3.8210167\ldots\ \mathrm{rad}. \]

Hence

\[ \boxed{\Delta\phi_{\mathrm{lag}}=3.821\ \mathrm{rad}=218.9^\circ}. \]

If phase is instead written as an additive argument, \(E_{\mathrm{out}}\propto s(\omega t+\phi)\), the same setting is

\[ \boxed{\phi=-3.821\ \mathrm{rad} \equiv 2.462\ \mathrm{rad}\pmod{2\pi}}. \]


1b) Intermolecular distance

For molecular number density \(n\), the characteristic intermolecular spacing is estimated by assigning a volume \(d^3\) to each molecule:

\[ d\sim n^{-1/3}. \]

The liquid’s number density is

\[ n_L=\frac{\rho_LN_A}{M}, \]

so

\[ d_L=\left(\frac{M}{\rho_LN_A}\right)^{1/3}. \]

For the ideal vapor,

\[ P_aV=\frac{N}{N_A}RT, \]

and therefore

\[ n_V=\frac{N}{V}=\frac{P_aN_A}{RT}, \qquad d_V=\left(\frac{RT}{P_aN_A}\right)^{1/3}. \]

Taking the ratio cancels Avogadro’s number:

\[ \frac{d_V}{d_L} =\left(\frac{\rho_LRT}{P_aM}\right)^{1/3}. \]

Using \(T\simeq373\ \mathrm{K}\),

\[ \frac{d_V}{d_L} = \left[ \frac{(1.0\times10^3)(8.3)(373)} {(1.0\times10^5)(1.8\times10^{-2})} \right]^{1/3} =11.9813\ldots. \]

Thus, consistently with the supplied data,

\[ \boxed{\frac{d_V}{d_L}\simeq 12}. \]

The corresponding characteristic distances are approximately

\[ d_L=3.1\times10^{-10}\ \mathrm{m}, \qquad d_V=3.7\times10^{-9}\ \mathrm{m}. \]


1c) Simple sawtooth signal generator

Assume the capacitor is initially uncharged, the residual voltage after a spark is negligible, and discharge takes much less time than charging.

(a) Voltage waveform

While the spark gap is nonconducting, Kirchhoff’s voltage law gives

\[ V_i=IR+V_0, \qquad I=C\frac{dV_0}{dt}. \]

Consequently,

\[ RC\frac{dV_0}{dt}=V_i-V_0. \]

Starting from \(V_0=0\), the charging solution is

\[ \boxed{V_0(\tau)=V_i\left(1-e^{-\tau/(RC)}\right)}. \]

When \(V_0\) reaches \(V_f\), the spark gap conducts and rapidly discharges the capacitor. The gap then becomes nonconducting, and charging begins again.

The requested sketch therefore has:

  • An initial point at \((t,V_0)=(0,0)\).
  • A rising, concave-down exponential segment ending at \(V_f\).
  • A nearly vertical drop from \(V_f\) to \(0\).
  • Identical repetitions at regular intervals.

If continued without firing, each charging segment would approach the asymptote \(V_i\). Sustained oscillation requires \(V_i>V_f\); otherwise the capacitor cannot reach the firing threshold in finite time.

(b) Condition for an almost linear ramp

The charging slope is

\[ \frac{dV_0}{dt}=\frac{V_i-V_0}{RC}. \]

It remains nearly constant throughout \(0\leq V_0\leq V_f\) if

\[ \boxed{V_f\ll V_i}. \]

Then

\[ \frac{dV_0}{dt}\simeq\frac{V_i}{RC}, \qquad V_0(\tau)\simeq\frac{V_i}{RC}\tau. \]

(c) Period

Neglecting the discharge duration, the exact charging time to the threshold follows from

\[ V_f=V_i\left(1-e^{-T/(RC)}\right). \]

Thus,

\[ T=RC\ln\left(\frac{V_i}{V_i-V_f}\right). \]

For \(V_f/V_i\ll1\), use \(-\ln(1-x)\simeq x\):

\[ \boxed{T\simeq RC\frac{V_f}{V_i}}. \]

Equivalently, the nearly constant charging current \(V_i/R\) must deliver the charge \(CV_f\), giving the same result.

(d) Changing the period only

The peak voltage is fixed by the spark-gap threshold \(V_f\), while the charging time is proportional to \(R\).

Therefore, vary \(R\) only, keeping \(SG\) fixed. Increasing \(R\) increases the period without changing the peak-to-peak amplitude.

(e) Changing the amplitude only

The peak-to-peak amplitude is approximately \(V_f\). Change the electrode separation of \(SG\) to change this threshold.

Because

\[ T\simeq \frac{C}{V_i}RV_f, \]

keeping the period constant requires

\[ \boxed{R_{\mathrm{new}}V_{f,\mathrm{new}} =R_{\mathrm{old}}V_{f,\mathrm{old}}}. \]

Thus both \(SG\) and \(R\) must be adjusted. For example, increasing the firing voltage requires a compensating decrease in resistance.

Without the linear approximation, the corresponding exact condition is

\[ R\ln\left(\frac{V_i}{V_i-V_f}\right)=\text{constant}. \]

(f) Circuit for the descending sawtooth

Define the original circuit’s lower rail as node \(G\), and the capacitor’s upper terminal as node \(A\). Then

\[ V(A)-V(G)=V_0. \]

Make the following connections:

  1. Retain the original oscillator circuit.
  2. Connect the additional DC supply’s negative terminal to \(G\).
  3. Adjust this supply to \(V_f\), and call its positive terminal \(B\).
  4. Take the new output between \(B\) and \(A\), with positive at \(B\) and negative at \(A\).

For a high-impedance output measurement,

\[ V_0'=V(B)-V(A)=V_f-V_0. \]

During each nearly linear charging interval,

\[ V_0'\simeq V_f-\frac{V_i}{RC}\tau =V_f\left(1-\frac{\tau}{T}\right). \]

Thus the output starts at \(V_f\), falls almost linearly to \(0\), and jumps back to \(V_f\) when the spark discharges the capacitor. These are precisely the intercepts, slopes, and jumps shown in Fig. 2.


1d) Atomic beam

The atomic-scale opening produces quantum diffraction. Let \(h\) be Planck’s constant and \(k_B\) Boltzmann’s constant.

A representative thermal speed follows from equipartition:

\[ \frac12Mv_{\mathrm{th}}^2=\frac32k_BT, \]

giving

\[ v_{\mathrm{th}}=\sqrt{\frac{3k_BT}{M}}, \qquad p_{\mathrm{th}}=Mv_{\mathrm{th}}=\sqrt{3Mk_BT}. \]

This uses the rms thermal speed as a representative speed; an estimate does not require resolving the full distribution of emerging velocities.

The corresponding de Broglie wavelength is

\[ \lambda=\frac{h}{p_{\mathrm{th}}} =\frac{h}{\sqrt{3Mk_BT}}. \]

For an opening of width \(D\), the characteristic diffraction half-angle satisfies

\[ \theta\sim\frac{\lambda}{D}. \]

This follows because an angular deflection \(\theta\) produces a path difference of order \(D\theta\) across the opening; appreciable diffraction occurs when that difference is comparable with \(\lambda\).

For small angles, propagation over distance \(L\) increases the beam radius by approximately \(L\theta\). A simple diameter estimate is therefore

\[ d_{\mathrm{beam}}\sim D+2L\theta, \]

or

\[ \boxed{ d_{\mathrm{beam}}\sim D+\frac{2hL}{D\sqrt{3Mk_BT}} }. \]

The initial aperture diameter matters when spreading is small. When diffraction dominates,

\[ \boxed{ d_{\mathrm{beam}}\sim\frac{hL}{D\sqrt{Mk_BT}} } \]

up to numerical factors of order unity.

For a more specific convention, the first diffraction minimum of an ideal circular aperture occurs at \(\theta\simeq1.22\lambda/D\). Its far-field central-disk diameter would therefore be

\[ d_{\mathrm{first\ minimum}} \simeq \frac{2.44hL}{D\sqrt{3Mk_BT}}. \]

The small-angle estimates require \(\lambda/D\ll1\). If this ratio is not small, the emerging wave is broadly divergent.

The solution was checked against the official solution.