IPhO 2000 · Theory problem 1

Five short parts: bungee jumper, heat engine, age of the Earth from U-Pb dating, uniformly charged sphere, rotating copper ring in the Earth's magnetic field

A

A bungee jumper is attached to one end of a long elastic rope. The other end of the elastic rope is fixed to a high bridge. The jumper steps off the bridge and falls, from rest, towards the river below. He does not hit the water. The mass of the jumper is \(m\), the unstretched length of the rope is \(L\), the rope has a force constant (force to produce 1 m extension) of \(k\) and the gravitational field strength is \(g\).

You may assume that

  • the jumper can be regarded as a point mass \(m\) attached to the end of the rope,
  • the mass of the rope is negligible compared to \(m\),
  • the rope obeys Hooke’s law,
  • air resistance can be ignored throughout the fall of the jumper.

Obtain expressions for the following and insert on the answer sheet:

(a) the distance \(y\) dropped by the jumper before coming instantaneously to rest for the first time,

(b) the maximum speed \(\upsilon\) attained by the jumper during this drop,

(c) the time \(t\) taken during the drop before coming to rest for the first time.

B

A heat engine operates between two identical bodies at different temperatures \(T_{\mathrm A}\) and \(T_{\mathrm B}\) (\(T_{\mathrm A}>T_{\mathrm B}\)), with each body having mass \(m\) and constant specific heat capacity \(s\). The bodies remain at constant pressure and undergo no change of phase.

(a) Showing full working, obtain an expression for the final temperature \(T_0\) attained by the two bodies A and B, if the heat engine extracts from the system the maximum amount of mechanical work that is theoretically possible.

Write your expression for the final temperature \(T_0\) on the answer sheet.

(b) Hence, obtain and write on the answer sheet an expression for this maximum amount of work available.

The heat engine operates between two tanks of water each of volume \(2.50\ \mathrm{m^3}\). One tank is at \(350\ \mathrm K\) and the other is at \(300\ \mathrm K\).

(c) Calculate the maximum amount of mechanical energy obtainable. Insert the value on the answer sheet.

Specific heat capacity of water \(=4.19\times10^3\ \mathrm{J\,kg^{-1}\,K^{-1}}\)

Density of water \(=1.00\times10^3\ \mathrm{kg\,m^{-3}}\)

C

It is assumed that when the earth was formed the isotopes \({}^{238}\mathrm U\) and \({}^{235}\mathrm U\) were present but not their decay products. The decays of \({}^{238}\mathrm U\) and \({}^{235}\mathrm U\) are used to establish the age of the earth, \(T\).

(a) The isotope \({}^{238}\mathrm U\) decays with a half-life of \(4.50\times10^9\) years. The decay products in the resulting radioactive series have half-lives short compared to this; to a first approximation their existence can be ignored. The decay series terminates in the stable lead isotope \({}^{206}\mathrm{Pb}\).

Obtain and insert on the answer sheet an expression for the number of \({}^{206}\mathrm{Pb}\) atoms, denoted \({}^{206}n\), produced by radioactive decay with time \(t\), in terms of the present number of \({}^{238}\mathrm U\) atoms, denoted \({}^{238}N\), and the half-life time of \({}^{238}\mathrm U\). (You may find it helpful to work in units of \(10^9\) years.)

(b) Similarly, \({}^{235}\mathrm U\) decays with a half-life of \(0.710\times10^9\) years through a series of shorter half-life products to give the stable isotope \({}^{207}\mathrm{Pb}\).

Write down on the answer sheet an equation relating \({}^{207}n\) to \({}^{235}N\) and the half-life of \({}^{235}\mathrm U\).

(c) A uranium ore, mixed with a lead ore, is analysed with a mass spectrometer. The relative concentrations of the three lead isotopes \({}^{204}\mathrm{Pb}\), \({}^{206}\mathrm{Pb}\) and \({}^{207}\mathrm{Pb}\) are measured and the number of atoms are found to be in the ratios \(1.00:29.6:22.6\) respectively. The isotope \({}^{204}\mathrm{Pb}\) is used for reference as it is not of radioactive origin. Analysing a pure lead ore gives ratios of \(1.00:17.9:15.5\).

Given that the ratio \({}^{238}N:{}^{235}N\) is \(137:1\), derive and insert on the answer sheet an equation involving \(T\).

(d) Assume that \(T\) is much greater than the half lives of both uranium isotopes and hence obtain an approximate value for \(T\).

(e) This approximate value is clearly not significantly greater than the longer half life, but can be used to obtain a much more accurate value for \(T\). Hence, or otherwise, estimate a value for the age of the earth correct to within 2%.

D

Charge \(Q\) is uniformly distributed in vacuo throughout a spherical volume of radius \(R\).

(a) Derive expressions for the electric field strength at distance \(r\) from the centre of the sphere for \(r\le R\) and \(r>R\).

(b) Obtain an expression for the total electric energy associated with this distribution of charge.

Insert your answers to (a) and (b) on the answer sheet.

E

A circular ring of thin copper wire is set rotating about a vertical diameter at a point within the Earth’s magnetic field. The magnetic flux density of the Earth’s magnetic field at this point is \(44.5\ \mu\mathrm T\) directed at an angle of \(64^\circ\) below the horizontal. Given that the density of copper is \(8.90\times10^3\ \mathrm{kg\,m^{-3}}\) and its resistivity is \(1.70\times10^{-8}\ \Omega\,\mathrm m\), calculate how long it will take for the angular velocity of the ring to halve. Show the steps of your working and insert the value of the time on the answer sheet. This time is much longer than the time for one revolution.

You may assume that the frictional effects of the supports and air are negligible, and for the purposes of this question you should ignore self-inductance effects, although these would not be negligible.

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • A(a): \[ \boxed{y=L+\frac{mg}{k}\left(1+\sqrt{1+\frac{2kL}{mg}}\right)}. \]

  • A(b): \[ \boxed{\upsilon=\sqrt{2gL+\frac{mg^2}{k}}}. \]

  • A(c): \[ \boxed{t=\sqrt{\frac{2L}{g}} +\sqrt{\frac{m}{k}}\left[\pi-\arctan\sqrt{\frac{2kL}{mg}}\right]}. \]

  • B(a): \[ \boxed{T_0=\sqrt{T_{\mathrm A}T_{\mathrm B}}}. \]

  • B(b): \[ \boxed{W_{\max}=ms\left(T_{\mathrm A}+T_{\mathrm B} -2\sqrt{T_{\mathrm A}T_{\mathrm B}}\right) =ms\left(\sqrt{T_{\mathrm A}}-\sqrt{T_{\mathrm B}}\right)^2}. \]

  • B(c): \[ \boxed{W_{\max}=2.02\times10^7\ \mathrm J=20.2\ \mathrm{MJ}}. \]

  • C(a): Writing \(h_{238}=4.50\times10^9\ \mathrm{yr}\), \[ \boxed{{}^{206}n={}^{238}N\left(2^{t/h_{238}}-1\right)}. \]

  • C(b): Writing \(h_{235}=0.710\times10^9\ \mathrm{yr}\), \[ \boxed{{}^{207}n={}^{235}N\left(2^{t/h_{235}}-1\right)}. \]

  • C(c): \[ \boxed{\frac{2^{T/h_{235}}-1}{2^{T/h_{238}}-1} =137\,\frac{7.1}{11.7}},\qquad T>0. \]

  • C(d): \[ \boxed{T_{\mathrm{approx}} =\frac{\ln(137\times7.1/11.7)} {(\ln2)(h_{235}^{-1}-h_{238}^{-1})} =5.38\times10^9\ \mathrm{yr}}. \]

  • C(e): \[ \boxed{T\simeq4.56\times10^9\ \mathrm{yr}}. \]

  • D(a): The radial component of the electric field is \[ \boxed{E_r(r)=\frac{Q}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} \begin{cases} \dfrac{r}{R^3},&0\le r\le R,\\[4pt] \dfrac{1}{r^2},&r>R. \end{cases}} \] The field is outward for \(Q>0\), inward for \(Q<0\), and zero at the centre.

  • D(b): \[ \boxed{U=\frac{3Q^2}{20\pi\varepsilon_0R}}. \]

  • E: \[ \boxed{t_{1/2}\simeq1.10\times10^6\ \mathrm s \simeq12.8\ \mathrm{days}}. \]

Solution

A(a)

Let \(z\) be the downward distance from the bridge. The rope is slack until \(z=L\); thereafter its extension is \(x=z-L\), and its tension is \(kx\).

There is no dissipation, so mechanical energy is conserved. At the lowest point, \(z=y\), the jumper is instantaneously at rest. Thus \[ mgy=\frac12k(y-L)^2. \] Equivalently, with \(x=y-L\), \[ x^2-\frac{2mg}{k}x-\frac{2mgL}{k}=0. \] The physically admissible root has positive extension: \[ x=\frac{mg}{k}+ \sqrt{\left(\frac{mg}{k}\right)^2+\frac{2mgL}{k}}. \] Therefore \[ \boxed{y=L+\frac{mg}{k}\left(1+\sqrt{1+\frac{2kL}{mg}}\right)}. \]

A(b)

The speed increases while the downward acceleration is positive. Once the rope is taut, \[ m\ddot z=mg-k(z-L). \] The speed is therefore greatest when the acceleration first becomes zero: \[ z=L+\frac{mg}{k}. \]

Energy conservation at any point with the rope taut gives \[ \frac12mv^2=mgz-\frac12k(z-L)^2. \] At the position of maximum speed, \[ \frac12m\upsilon^2 =mg\left(L+\frac{mg}{k}\right) -\frac12k\left(\frac{mg}{k}\right)^2 =mgL+\frac{m^2g^2}{2k}. \] Hence \[ \boxed{\upsilon=\sqrt{2gL+\frac{mg^2}{k}}}. \]

A(c)

During the initial free fall through distance \(L\), the elapsed time and final speed are \[ t_1=\sqrt{\frac{2L}{g}}, \qquad v_1=\sqrt{2gL}. \]

Set \(\tau=0\) when the rope first becomes taut, and define \[ \omega_0=\sqrt{\frac{k}{m}}, \qquad x_{\mathrm{eq}}=\frac{mg}{k}. \] The subsequent equation of motion is \[ \ddot x+\omega_0^2x=g. \] With \(x(0)=0\) and \(\dot x(0)=v_1\), its solution is \[ x(\tau)=x_{\mathrm{eq}}\bigl(1-\cos\omega_0\tau\bigr) +\frac{v_1}{\omega_0}\sin\omega_0\tau, \] so \[ \dot x(\tau)=x_{\mathrm{eq}}\omega_0\sin\omega_0\tau +v_1\cos\omega_0\tau. \]

The first zero of this velocity occurs for \(\pi/2<\omega_0\tau<\pi\). Consequently, \[ \omega_0\tau =\pi-\arctan\left(\frac{v_1}{x_{\mathrm{eq}}\omega_0}\right) =\pi-\arctan\sqrt{\frac{2kL}{mg}}. \] Adding the free-fall time gives \[ \boxed{ t=\sqrt{\frac{2L}{g}} +\sqrt{\frac{m}{k}} \left[\pi-\arctan\sqrt{\frac{2kL}{mg}}\right]}. \]

B(a)

Maximum work is obtained by operating the engine reversibly between the bodies’ instantaneous temperatures, until they reach a common temperature. All temperatures below are absolute temperatures.

Each body has constant heat capacity \(ms\) at constant pressure. Its entropy change is therefore \[ \Delta S=ms\int\frac{dT}{T}. \] The engine operates cyclically, so its net entropy change is zero. For reversible operation, the combined entropy change of the bodies is also zero: \[ ms\int_{T_{\mathrm A}}^{T_0}\frac{dT}{T} +ms\int_{T_{\mathrm B}}^{T_0}\frac{dT}{T}=0. \] Thus \[ \ln\frac{T_0}{T_{\mathrm A}} +\ln\frac{T_0}{T_{\mathrm B}}=0, \] which yields \[ \boxed{T_0=\sqrt{T_{\mathrm A}T_{\mathrm B}}}. \]

To see why this gives the maximum, an irreversible process would instead produce positive total entropy, requiring \[ T_0\ge\sqrt{T_{\mathrm A}T_{\mathrm B}}. \] A higher final temperature leaves more thermal energy in the bodies and consequently permits less work to be extracted.

B(b)

The heat extracted from the initially hotter body is \[ Q_{\mathrm H}=ms(T_{\mathrm A}-T_0), \] and the heat delivered to the initially colder body is \[ Q_{\mathrm C}=ms(T_0-T_{\mathrm B}). \] Energy conservation for the cyclic engine gives \[ W=Q_{\mathrm H}-Q_{\mathrm C} =ms(T_{\mathrm A}+T_{\mathrm B}-2T_0). \] Substituting the reversible final temperature, \[ \boxed{ W_{\max} =ms\left(T_{\mathrm A}+T_{\mathrm B} -2\sqrt{T_{\mathrm A}T_{\mathrm B}}\right) =ms\left(\sqrt{T_{\mathrm A}}-\sqrt{T_{\mathrm B}}\right)^2}. \]

B(c)

The mass of water in each tank is \[ m=\rho V=(1.00\times10^3)(2.50) =2.50\times10^3\ \mathrm{kg}. \] The reversible final temperature is \[ T_0=\sqrt{350\times300}=324.037\ldots\ \mathrm K. \] Using this value without premature rounding, \[ \begin{aligned} W_{\max} &=(2.50\times10^3)(4.19\times10^3) \left[350+300-2\sqrt{350\times300}\right]\\ &=2.0174\ldots\times10^7\ \mathrm J. \end{aligned} \] Therefore \[ \boxed{W_{\max}=2.02\times10^7\ \mathrm J=20.2\ \mathrm{MJ}}. \]

C(a)

For a radioactive parent isotope with half-life \(h\), \[ N(t)=N(0)e^{-\lambda t}, \qquad \lambda=\frac{\ln2}{h}. \] Hence the initial number of parent atoms can be expressed in terms of the present number: \[ N(0)=N(t)e^{\lambda t}=N(t)2^{t/h}. \]

Neglecting the lifetimes of the intermediate products, each decayed uranium atom produces one terminal lead atom. Since there were initially no decay products, \[ n(t)=N(0)-N(t)=N(t)\left(2^{t/h}-1\right). \] For the \({}^{238}\mathrm U\) series, \[ \boxed{{}^{206}n ={}^{238}N\left(2^{t/h_{238}}-1\right)}, \qquad h_{238}=4.50\times10^9\ \mathrm{yr}. \]

C(b)

Applying the same reasoning to the \({}^{235}\mathrm U\) series, \[ \boxed{{}^{207}n ={}^{235}N\left(2^{t/h_{235}}-1\right)}, \qquad h_{235}=0.710\times10^9\ \mathrm{yr}. \]

C(c)

The pure lead ore supplies the background isotope ratios. These background amounts must be subtracted from the mixed sample to find the lead produced by uranium decay.

Let \(N_{204}\) be the number of \({}^{204}\mathrm{Pb}\) atoms in the mixed sample. Since this isotope is not radiogenic, \[ {}^{206}n=(29.6-17.9)N_{204}=11.7N_{204}, \] and \[ {}^{207}n=(22.6-15.5)N_{204}=7.1N_{204}. \] Therefore \[ \frac{{}^{207}n}{{}^{206}n}=\frac{7.1}{11.7}. \]

Using the decay equations and the present uranium ratio, \[ \frac{7.1}{11.7} =\frac{{}^{235}N}{{}^{238}N} \frac{2^{T/h_{235}}-1}{2^{T/h_{238}}-1} =\frac1{137} \frac{2^{T/h_{235}}-1}{2^{T/h_{238}}-1}. \] Thus the required equation is \[ \boxed{ \frac{2^{T/h_{235}}-1}{2^{T/h_{238}}-1} =137\,\frac{7.1}{11.7} =83.13675\ldots}, \qquad T>0. \]

C(d)

Under the stated approximation \(T\gg h_{238},h_{235}\), \[ 2^{T/h}-1\simeq2^{T/h}. \] The dating equation becomes \[ 2^{T(1/h_{235}-1/h_{238})} \simeq137\,\frac{7.1}{11.7}. \] Taking logarithms, \[ T_{\mathrm{approx}} =\frac{\ln(137\times7.1/11.7)} {(\ln2)(h_{235}^{-1}-h_{238}^{-1})}. \] Numerically, \[ T_{\mathrm{approx}} =\frac{\ln(83.13675\ldots)} {(\ln2)(1/0.710-1/4.50)} \times10^9\ \mathrm{yr}, \] so \[ \boxed{T_{\mathrm{approx}}=5.38\times10^9\ \mathrm{yr}}. \] This is only about \(1.19h_{238}\), so neglecting the subtraction of 1 in the \({}^{238}\mathrm U\) expression is not justified for an accurate result.

C(e)

Retain both subtractions of 1. Writing \[ u=\frac{T}{10^9\ \mathrm{yr}}, \] we must solve \[ F(u)\equiv \frac{2^{u/0.710}-1}{2^{u/4.50}-1} =83.13675\ldots. \] Nearby evaluations give \[ F(4.55)=82.666\ldots, \qquad F(4.56)=83.232\ldots. \] Thus the required age lies between \(4.55\) and \(4.56\) billion years. A more precise numerical solution is \(u=4.5583157\ldots\), giving \[ \boxed{T\simeq4.56\times10^9\ \mathrm{yr}}, \] well within the requested 2%.

D(a)

The uniform volume charge density is \[ \rho_q=\frac{Q}{(4/3)\pi R^3}. \] Spherical symmetry makes the electric field radial and constant in magnitude on a concentric spherical Gaussian surface.

For \(r\le R\), the enclosed charge is \[ Q_{\mathrm{enc}} =\rho_q\frac{4\pi r^3}{3} =Q\frac{r^3}{R^3}. \] Gauss’s law gives \[ 4\pi r^2E_r=\frac{Q_{\mathrm{enc}}}{\varepsilon_0}, \] and hence \[ \boxed{E_r=\frac{Qr}{4\pi\varepsilon_0R^3}\qquad(r\le R)}. \]

For \(r>R\), the enclosed charge is \(Q\), so \[ \boxed{E_r=\frac{Q}{4\pi\varepsilon_0r^2}\qquad(r>R)}. \]

The field is zero at the centre and continuous at the surface, where \[ E_r(R)=\frac{Q}{4\pi\varepsilon_0R^2}. \]

D(b)

In vacuum the electrostatic energy density is \[ u_{\mathrm E}=\frac12\varepsilon_0E^2. \] The total energy includes the field both inside and outside the charged sphere: \[ U=\frac{\varepsilon_0}{2} \left[ \int_0^R E^2\,4\pi r^2\,dr +\int_R^\infty E^2\,4\pi r^2\,dr \right]. \] Substituting the fields found above, \[ U=\frac{Q^2}{8\pi\varepsilon_0} \left[ \frac1{R^6}\int_0^R r^4\,dr +\int_R^\infty\frac{dr}{r^2} \right]. \] Therefore \[ U=\frac{Q^2}{8\pi\varepsilon_0} \left(\frac1{5R}+\frac1R\right), \] and \[ \boxed{U=\frac{3Q^2}{20\pi\varepsilon_0R}}. \]

E

Let the ring have radius \(a\), and let the wire’s cross-sectional area be \(S\). Denote copper’s mass density by \(\rho_m\) and its electrical resistivity by \(\rho_e\).

The ring’s mass and resistance are \[ M=2\pi aS\rho_m, \qquad \mathcal R=\rho_e\frac{2\pi a}{S}. \] For a thin ring rotating about a diameter, the moment of inertia is \[ I=\frac12Ma^2=\pi\rho_mSa^3. \]

The ring’s plane remains vertical, so its normal is horizontal. Only the horizontal component of the Earth’s field contributes to the magnetic flux: \[ B_h=B\cos64^\circ. \] Let \(\theta\) be the angle between the ring’s normal and this horizontal field. The flux is \[ \Phi=B_h\pi a^2\cos\theta. \] With \(\dot\theta=\omega\), Faraday’s law gives \[ \mathcal E=-\frac{d\Phi}{dt} =B_h\pi a^2\omega\sin\theta. \]

Neglecting self-inductance as instructed, the current is \[ i=\frac{\mathcal E}{\mathcal R}. \] The instantaneous rate of Joule heating is consequently \[ P=i^2\mathcal R =\frac{B_h^2\pi^2a^4}{\mathcal R} \omega^2\sin^2\theta. \]

The stated damping time is much longer than one revolution, so \(\omega\) changes only slightly during each revolution. We may therefore use \[ \left\langle\sin^2\theta\right\rangle=\frac12, \] giving \[ \langle P\rangle =\frac{B_h^2\pi^2a^4}{2\mathcal R}\omega^2. \]

With friction absent, this heat comes from the rotational kinetic energy: \[ \frac{d}{dt}\left(\frac12I\omega^2\right) =-\langle P\rangle. \] Thus the averaged angular velocity satisfies \[ \frac{d\omega}{dt} =-\frac{B_h^2\pi^2a^4}{2I\mathcal R}\omega. \] But \[ I\mathcal R =(\pi\rho_mSa^3) \left(\rho_e\frac{2\pi a}{S}\right) =2\pi^2\rho_m\rho_ea^4, \] so the geometrical quantities cancel: \[ \frac{d\omega}{dt} =-\frac{B_h^2}{4\rho_m\rho_e}\omega. \] Hence \[ \omega(t)=\omega(0) \exp\left(-\frac{B_h^2t}{4\rho_m\rho_e}\right). \] Setting \(\omega(t_{1/2})=\omega(0)/2\) yields \[ t_{1/2} =\frac{4\rho_m\rho_e\ln2}{B_h^2} =\frac{4\rho_m\rho_e\ln2}{B^2\cos^264^\circ}. \]

Numerically, \[ B_h=(44.5\times10^{-6})\cos64^\circ =1.95075\ldots\times10^{-5}\ \mathrm T, \] and \[ t_{1/2} =\frac{4(8.90\times10^3)(1.70\times10^{-8})\ln2} {(44.5\times10^{-6})^2\cos^264^\circ}. \] Therefore \[ \boxed{t_{1/2}\simeq1.10\times10^6\ \mathrm s \simeq12.8\ \mathrm{days}}. \]

The solution was checked against the official solution.