IPhO 1997 · Theory problem 3

Solar-Powered Aircraft

We wish to design an aircraft which will stay aloft using solar power alone. The most efficient type of layout is one with a wing whose top surface is completely covered in solar cells. The cells supply electrical power with which the motor drives the propeller.

Consider a wing of rectangular plan-form with span \(l\), chord (width) \(c\); the wing area is \(S = cl\), and the wing aspect ratio \(A = l/c\). We can get an approximate idea of the wing’s performance by considering a slice of air of height \(x\) and length \(l\) being deflected downward at a small angle \(\varepsilon\) with only a very small change in speed. Control surfaces can be used to select an optimal value of \(\varepsilon\) for flight. This simple model corresponds closely to reality if \(x = \pi l/4\), and we can assume this to be the case. The total mass of the aircraft is \(M\) and it flies horizontally with velocity \(\vec{v}\) relative to the surrounding air. In the following calculations consider only the air flow around the wing.

Figure 1

Top view of aircraft (in its own frame of reference):

Figure 2

Side view of wing (in a frame of reference moving with the aircraft):

Ignore the modification of the airflow due to the propeller.

(a) Consider the change in momentum of the air moving past the wing, with no change in speed while it does so. Derive expressions for the vertical lift force \(L\) and the horizontal drag force \(D_1\) on the wing in terms of wing dimensions, \(v\), \(\varepsilon\), and the air density \(\rho\). Assume the direction of air flow is always parallel to the plane of the side-view diagram.

(3 marks)

(b) There is an additional horizontal drag force \(D_2\) caused by the friction of air flowing over the surface of the wing. The air slows slightly, with a change of speed \(\Delta v\) (\(\ll 1\%\) of \(v\)) given by:

\[ \frac{\Delta v}{v}=\frac{f}{A} \]

The value of \(f\) is independent of \(\varepsilon\).

Find an expression (in terms of \(M, f, A, S, \rho\) and \(g\)- the acceleration due to gravity) for the flight speed \(v_0\) corresponding to a minimum power being needed to maintain this aircraft in flight at constant altitude and velocity. Neglect terms of order \((\varepsilon^2 f)\) or higher.

(3 marks)

You may find the following small angle approximation useful:

\[ 1-\cos\varepsilon\approx\frac{\sin^2\varepsilon}{2} \]

(c) On the answer sheet, sketch a graph of power \(P\) versus flight speed \(v\). Show the separate contributions to the power needed from the two sources of drag. Find an expression (in terms of \(M, f, A, S, \rho\) and \(g\)) for the minimum power, \(P_{\min}\).

(2 marks)

(d) If the solar cells can supply sufficient energy so that the electric motors and propellers generate mechanical power of \(I = 10\) watts per square metre of wing area, calculate the maximum wing loading \(Mg/S\) (\(\mathrm{N/m^2}\)) for this power and flight speed \(v_0\) (\(\mathrm{m/s}\)). Assume \(\rho = 1.25\ \mathrm{kg/m^3}\), \(f = 0.004\), \(A = 10\).

(2 marks)

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • (a) \[ \boxed{L=\frac{\pi}{4}\rho l^2v^2\sin\varepsilon}, \qquad \boxed{D_1=\frac{\pi}{4}\rho l^2v^2(1-\cos\varepsilon)}. \]

  • (b) \[ \boxed{v_0= \left[\frac{8(Mg)^2}{3\pi^2\rho^2 f A S^2}\right]^{1/4}}. \]

  • (c) \[ \boxed{P(v)= \underbrace{\frac{2(Mg)^2}{\pi\rho ASv}}_{P_1} +\underbrace{\frac{\pi}{4}\rho fS v^3}_{P_2}}, \] \[ \boxed{P_{\min}= \left(\frac{512f}{27\pi^2A^3}\right)^{1/4} \frac{(Mg)^{3/2}}{\sqrt{\rho S}}}. \] The induced-power contribution \(P_1\) decreases as \(1/v\), while the friction contribution \(P_2\) increases as \(v^3\). Their sum has one minimum, at \(v_0\), where \(P_1=3P_2\).

  • (d) \[ \boxed{\left(\frac{Mg}{S}\right)_{\max}\approx36\ \mathrm{N/m^2}}, \qquad \boxed{v_0\approx8.6\ \mathrm{m/s}}. \]

Solution

(a)

Work in the aircraft’s reference frame. In a time \(dt\), the volume of air passing through the affected cross-section \(xl\) is \(xlv\,dt\). Thus the mass flow rate is

\[ \dot m=\rho xlv. \]

The air initially has horizontal speed \(v\). After deflection, its horizontal velocity is \(v\cos\varepsilon\) and its downward velocity is \(v\sin\varepsilon\).

By the momentum principle and Newton’s third law, the upward force on the wing equals the rate at which the air gains downward momentum:

\[ L=\dot m\,v\sin\varepsilon =\rho xl v^2\sin\varepsilon. \]

Similarly, the air loses horizontal momentum, producing a drag force on the wing:

\[ D_1=\dot m\,v(1-\cos\varepsilon) =\rho xl v^2(1-\cos\varepsilon). \]

Using \(x=\pi l/4\),

\[ \boxed{L=\frac{\pi}{4}\rho l^2v^2\sin\varepsilon}, \qquad \boxed{D_1=\frac{\pi}{4}\rho l^2v^2(1-\cos\varepsilon)}. \]

For small \(\varepsilon\), these become

\[ L\simeq\frac{\pi}{4}\rho l^2v^2\varepsilon, \qquad D_1\simeq\frac{\pi}{8}\rho l^2v^2\varepsilon^2. \]

(b)

Since \(AS=l^2\), define

\[ K=\rho xl=\frac{\pi}{4}\rho AS, \qquad \dot m=Kv. \]

The additional horizontal momentum loss caused by the reduction in speed gives

\[ D_2=\dot m\,\Delta v\cos\varepsilon. \]

Using \(\Delta v/v=f/A\) and dropping the correction of order \(\varepsilon^2f\),

\[ D_2\simeq Kv^2\frac{f}{A} =\boxed{\frac{\pi}{4}\rho fS v^2}. \]

The slowing also reduces the lift by a relative amount \(f/A\). However, its effect on the induced drag, which is proportional to \(\sin^2\varepsilon\), is of order \(\varepsilon^2f\). Therefore, to the required accuracy, we may impose vertical equilibrium using the lift expression from (a):

\[ Mg=Kv^2\sin\varepsilon, \qquad \sin\varepsilon=\frac{Mg}{Kv^2}. \]

The supplied small-angle approximation then gives

\[ D_1 \simeq\frac{Kv^2}{2}\sin^2\varepsilon =\frac{(Mg)^2}{2Kv^2} =\frac{2(Mg)^2}{\pi\rho ASv^2}. \]

In steady horizontal flight, propeller thrust balances the total drag. The mechanical power required is therefore

\[ P=(D_1+D_2)v =\frac{2(Mg)^2}{\pi\rho ASv} +\frac{\pi}{4}\rho fS v^3. \]

Write this as

\[ P=\frac{\alpha}{v}+\beta v^3, \qquad \alpha=\frac{2(Mg)^2}{\pi\rho AS}, \qquad \beta=\frac{\pi}{4}\rho fS. \]

Differentiating with respect to flight speed,

\[ \frac{dP}{dv}=-\frac{\alpha}{v^2}+3\beta v^2. \]

Hence the optimum speed satisfies

\[ v_0^4=\frac{\alpha}{3\beta} =\frac{8(Mg)^2}{3\pi^2\rho^2fAS^2}, \]

so

\[ \boxed{v_0= \left[\frac{8(Mg)^2}{3\pi^2\rho^2fAS^2}\right]^{1/4}}. \]

This is the unique minimum for \(v>0\), since

\[ \frac{d^2P}{dv^2} =\frac{2\alpha}{v^3}+6\beta v>0. \]

(c)

At the minimum, the condition \(\alpha=3\beta v_0^4\) implies

\[ P_1(v_0)=\frac{\alpha}{v_0} =3\beta v_0^3=3P_2(v_0). \]

Thus

\[ P_{\min}=4\beta v_0^3 =\pi\rho fS v_0^3. \]

Substituting the expression for \(v_0\),

\[ \boxed{ P_{\min} =\left(\frac{512f}{27\pi^2A^3}\right)^{1/4} \frac{(Mg)^{3/2}}{\sqrt{\rho S}} }. \]

The requested graph has the following features:

  • \(P_1=\alpha/v\) is a decreasing hyperbola. Formally, it diverges as \(v\to0^+\) and approaches zero as \(v\to\infty\).
  • \(P_2=\beta v^3\) starts at the origin with a horizontal tangent and increases monotonically.
  • Their sum lies above both curves, decreases to its unique minimum \((v_0,P_{\min})\), and then increases. It diverges at both ends of the positive-speed range and has no axis intercept.
  • The two contributions cross at \(v=3^{1/4}v_0\approx1.316v_0\), to the right of the total-power minimum.

A precise dimensionless description is obtained by setting \(u=v/v_0\):

\[ \frac{P_1}{P_{\min}}=\frac{3}{4u}, \qquad \frac{P_2}{P_{\min}}=\frac{u^3}{4}, \qquad \frac{P}{P_{\min}}=\frac{3}{4u}+\frac{u^3}{4}. \]

Useful points for the sketch are:

\(v/v_0\) \(P_1/P_{\min}\) \(P_2/P_{\min}\) \(P/P_{\min}\)
0.500 1.500 0.031 1.531
1.000 0.750 0.250 1.000
1.316 0.570 0.570 1.140
2.000 0.375 2.000 2.375

The limit \(v\to0^+\) is a formal extrapolation of these equations: sufficiently low speeds would require a deflection angle outside the small-angle approximation.

(d)

Let the wing loading be

\[ w=\frac{Mg}{S}. \]

The available mechanical power is \(IS\). The maximum loading occurs when this just equals the minimum required power:

\[ IS=P_{\min}=\pi\rho fS v_0^3. \]

Consequently,

\[ v_0=\left(\frac{I}{\pi\rho f}\right)^{1/3}. \]

Numerically,

\[ v_0= \left(\frac{10}{\pi(1.25)(0.004)}\right)^{1/3} =8.6025\ldots\ \mathrm{m/s}, \]

giving

\[ \boxed{v_0\approx8.6\ \mathrm{m/s}}. \]

Rearranging the optimum-speed relation from (b),

\[ v_0^4=\frac{8w^2}{3\pi^2\rho^2fA}, \]

we obtain

\[ w_{\max} =\pi\rho v_0^2\sqrt{\frac{3fA}{8}} =\pi\rho\sqrt{\frac{3fA}{8}} \left(\frac{I}{\pi\rho f}\right)^{2/3}. \]

Substitution gives

\[ w_{\max} =\pi(1.25)(8.6025\ldots)^2 \sqrt{\frac{3(0.004)(10)}{8}} =35.5925\ldots\ \mathrm{N/m^2}. \]

Therefore,

\[ \boxed{\left(\frac{Mg}{S}\right)_{\max}\approx36\ \mathrm{N/m^2}}. \]

This is the maximum because \(P_{\min}/S\) increases as \(w^{3/2}\); a larger loading would require more than the available \(10\ \mathrm{W/m^2}\) at every speed.

As a consistency check, at this operating point,

\[ \sin\varepsilon_0=\sqrt{\frac{6f}{A}}, \qquad \varepsilon_0\simeq0.049\ \mathrm{rad}\simeq2.8^\circ, \]

and

\[ \frac{\Delta v}{v}=\frac{f}{A}=0.0004=0.04\%. \]

Both approximations are consistent with the given data.

The solution was checked against the official solution.