IPhO 1985 · Theory problem 3

Space probe escaping the Solar system with the help of Mars

In a space research project two schemes of launching a space probe out of the Solar system are discussed. The first scheme (i) is to launch the probe with a velocity large enough to escape from the Solar system directly. According to the second one (ii), the probe is to approach one of the outer planets, and with its help change its direction of motion and reach the velocity necessary to escape from the Solar system. Assume that the probe moves under the gravitational field of only the Sun or the planet, depending on whichever field is stronger at that point.

a) Determine the minimum velocity and its direction relative to the Earth’s motion that should be given to the probe on launching according to scheme (i).

b) Suppose that the probe has been launched in the direction determined in a) but with another velocity. Determine the velocity of the probe when it crosses the orbit of Mars, i. e., its parallel and perpendicular components with respect to this orbit. Mars is not near the point of crossing, when crossing occurs.

c) Let the probe enter the gravitational field of Mars. Find the minimum launching velocity from the Earth necessary for the probe to escape from the Solar system.

Hint: From the result a) you know the optimal magnitude and the direction of the velocity of the probe that is necessary to escape from the Solar system after leaving the gravitational field of Mars. (You do not have to worry about the precise position of Mars during the encounter.) Find the relation between this velocity and the velocity components before the probe enters the gravitational field of Mars; i. e., the components you determined in b). What about the conservation of energy of the probe?

d) Estimate the maximum possible fractional saving of energy in scheme (ii) with respect to scheme (i). Notes: Assume that all the planets revolve round the Sun in circles, in the same direction and in the same plane. Neglect the air resistance, the rotation of the Earth around its axis as well as the energy used in escaping from the Earth’s gravitational field.

Data: Velocity of the Earth round the Sun is 30 km/s, and the ratio of the distances of the Earth and Mars from the Sun is 2/3.

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

Let \(V=30\,\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}\), and let \(u\) denote the launch speed relative to Earth.

  • a) Launch in the direction of Earth’s orbital motion, with \[ \boxed{u_{\mathrm{i},\min}=(\sqrt2-1)V=12.4\,\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}.} \]

  • b) For a prograde launch with speed \(u\), the heliocentric components at Mars’s orbit are \[ \boxed{v_\parallel=\frac23(V+u),\qquad v_\perp=\sqrt{\frac59(V+u)^2-\frac23V^2},} \] where \(v_\perp\) points radially outward on the first crossing. Reaching this orbit requires \(u\ge2.86\,\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}\).

  • c) With \(V_M=\sqrt{2/3}\,V\), the minimum Earth-relative launch speed is \[ \boxed{ u_{\mathrm{ii},\min} =V_M\left[\frac23+\sqrt{\frac49+(\sqrt2-1)^2}\right]-V =5.56\,\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}. } \] The launch is prograde; the optimal outgoing velocity is also prograde and tangential to Mars’s orbit.

  • d) The maximum fractional launch-energy saving is \[ \boxed{ \frac{E_{\mathrm{i}}-E_{\mathrm{ii}}}{E_{\mathrm{i}}} =1-\left(\frac{u_{\mathrm{ii},\min}}{u_{\mathrm{i},\min}}\right)^2 \simeq0.800, } \] or approximately \(\boxed{80\%}\).

Solution

Write the Earth’s and Mars’s orbital radii as \(r\) and \(R\), respectively, and put \(\mu=GM_\odot\). The supplied ratio and the circular-orbit condition give \[ \frac rR=\frac23,\qquad V^2=\frac{\mu}{r}. \] All probe velocities below are heliocentric unless explicitly stated otherwise. Earth’s gravitational field is neglected as instructed.

a)

The probe escapes from the Sun if its specific mechanical energy is nonnegative: \[ \varepsilon=\frac12v_0^2-\frac{\mu}{r}\ge0. \] Thus its initial heliocentric speed must satisfy \[ v_0\ge\sqrt{\frac{2\mu}{r}}=\sqrt2\,V. \]

For a given Earth-relative launch speed \(u\), the largest possible heliocentric speed is \(V+u\), obtained by launching parallel to Earth’s motion. Therefore \[ V+u_{\mathrm{i},\min}=\sqrt2\,V, \] so \[ \boxed{u_{\mathrm{i},\min}=(\sqrt2-1)V=12.4\,\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}.} \] The corresponding heliocentric speed is \(42.4\,\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}\). At this threshold the trajectory is parabolic, with zero speed at infinity.

b)

For a prograde launch, put \[ v_0=V+u. \] The initial velocity is tangential to Earth’s orbit.

Between Earth’s and Mars’s orbits, the Sun’s force is central, so angular momentum about the Sun is conserved: \[ r v_0=R v_\parallel. \] Consequently, \[ \boxed{v_\parallel=\frac23v_0=\frac23(V+u).} \]

Conservation of mechanical energy gives \[ \frac12v_0^2-\frac{\mu}{r} = \frac12\left(v_\parallel^2+v_\perp^2\right)-\frac{\mu}{R}. \] Using \(\mu/r=V^2\) and \(\mu/R=\frac23V^2\), \[ v_\parallel^2+v_\perp^2=v_0^2-\frac23V^2. \] Subtracting \(v_\parallel^2=\frac49v_0^2\), \[ \boxed{ v_\perp=\sqrt{\frac59v_0^2-\frac23V^2} =\sqrt{\frac59(V+u)^2-\frac23V^2}. } \] This is the outward radial component at the first crossing. Its sign reverses at an inward crossing.

For the probe to reach Mars’s orbital radius, the radicand must be nonnegative: \[ v_0^2\ge\frac65V^2. \] Hence \[ u\ge\left(\sqrt{\frac65}-1\right)V =2.86\,\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}. \] Equality corresponds to an orbit whose aphelion just touches Mars’s orbit.

c)

Mars’s orbital speed is \[ V_M=\sqrt{\frac{\mu}{R}} =\sqrt{\frac23}\,V =24.5\,\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}. \]

Treat the encounter as localized and short compared with Mars’s orbital motion, so that Mars’s velocity is effectively constant. In the Mars frame, the incoming probe velocity has components \[ w_\parallel=v_\parallel-V_M,\qquad w_\perp=v_\perp. \] Its magnitude is therefore \[ w^2=(v_\parallel-V_M)^2+v_\perp^2. \]

In this frame the gravitational encounter conserves mechanical energy. At equal distances from Mars before and after the encounter, the relative speed is the same, although its direction changes.

If the outgoing relative velocity makes an angle \(\theta\) with Mars’s motion, the outgoing heliocentric speed satisfies \[ v_{\mathrm{out}}^2 =V_M^2+w^2+2V_Mw\cos\theta. \] It is largest when \(\theta=0\), giving \[ v_{\mathrm{out,max}}=V_M+w. \] Thus the optimal encounter directs the outgoing relative velocity along Mars’s motion.

The solar escape speed at Mars’s orbital radius is \[ v_{\mathrm{esc}}(R)=\sqrt{\frac{2\mu}{R}}=\sqrt2\,V_M. \] The minimum required relative speed is consequently \[ \boxed{w_{\min}=(\sqrt2-1)V_M.} \]

Now use the components found in part b): \[ \begin{aligned} w^2 &=v_\parallel^2+v_\perp^2-2V_Mv_\parallel+V_M^2\\ &=v_0^2-\frac23V^2-\frac43V_Mv_0+V_M^2. \end{aligned} \] Since \(V_M^2=\frac23V^2\), this simplifies to \[ w^2=v_0^2-\frac43V_Mv_0. \] At the escape threshold, \[ v_0^2-\frac43V_Mv_0=(\sqrt2-1)^2V_M^2. \] The positive root is \[ v_{0,\min} =V_M\left[\frac23+\sqrt{\frac49+(\sqrt2-1)^2}\right] =35.555\ldots\,\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}. \] Therefore the required launch speed relative to Earth is \[ \boxed{ u_{\mathrm{ii},\min}=v_{0,\min}-V =5.56\,\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}. } \] This exceeds the \(2.86\,\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}\) needed to reach Mars’s orbit, so the incoming trajectory is possible.

The prograde launch also minimizes the required speed over possible launch directions. To see this, let \(\alpha\) be the launch angle relative to Earth’s motion and write \(q=r/R=2/3\). The same energy and angular-momentum relations give \[ w^2 =u^2+2Vu(1-q^{3/2})\cos\alpha +V^2(3q-1-2q^{3/2}). \] For fixed \(u\), this is greatest at \(\cos\alpha=1\), since \(q<1\). Thus launching prograde provides the largest available encounter-relative speed for a given launch speed.

Numerically, the optimal incoming trajectory has \[ v_\parallel=23.70\,\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}},\qquad v_\perp=10.12\,\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}. \] These give \(w=10.15\,\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}\). After the optimal turn, \[ v_{\mathrm{out}}=V_M+w =34.64\,\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}} =\sqrt2\,V_M, \] as required.

There is no violation of energy conservation. The probe’s heliocentric energy increases during the encounter by \[ \Delta E =m\mathbf V_M\cdot \left(\mathbf w_{\mathrm{out}}-\mathbf w_{\mathrm{in}}\right). \] For the optimal turn this becomes \[ \Delta E=mV_M\left[w-(v_\parallel-V_M)\right]>0. \] This energy comes from Mars’s orbital motion. Mars’s corresponding change in velocity is negligible because its mass is much greater than the probe’s.

d)

With terrestrial escape energy neglected, the energy imparted at launch in Earth’s frame is \[ E_{\mathrm{launch}}=\frac12mu^2. \] Hence the maximum fractional saving is \[ \begin{aligned} f_{\max} &=\frac{E_{\mathrm{i}}-E_{\mathrm{ii}}}{E_{\mathrm{i}}}\\ &=1-\left(\frac{u_{\mathrm{ii},\min}}{u_{\mathrm{i},\min}}\right)^2\\ &=1-\left(\frac{5.55519}{12.42641}\right)^2\\ &=0.80015. \end{aligned} \] Thus \[ \boxed{f_{\max}\simeq80\%.} \] The corresponding launch energies per unit probe mass are approximately \(77.2\,\mathrm{MJ\,kg^{-1}}\) for direct escape and \(15.4\,\mathrm{MJ\,kg^{-1}}\) with the ideal Mars assist.

The solution was checked against the official solution.