IChO 2025 · Theory problem 6

Solar energy conversion by CO2 reduction

6. Solar energy conversion by \(\ce{CO2}\) reduction

6% of the total

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 Total
5 2 3 3 3 2 4 22

Use the following data to solve this problem. Assume enthalpy and entropy changes of reactions do not depend on temperature.

\(\ce{CO2(g)}\) \(\ce{CO(g)}\) \(\ce{O2(g)}\) \(\ce{Zn(s)}\) \(\ce{Zn(l)}\) \(\ce{Zn(g)}\) \(\ce{ZnO(s)}\)
\(\Delta_{\mathrm f}H^\circ_{298}\ /\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\) −393.5 −110.5 6.5 130.4 −350.5
\(S^\circ_{298}\ /\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}}\) 213.8 197.7 205.1 41.7 50.8 161.0 43.7
Melting Point / K 692.7 2247
Boiling Point / K 1180

Photochemical reduction of carbon dioxide is a promising approach both for solar energy conversion and for reduction of \(\ce{CO2}\) content in the atmosphere. There are several ways to convert \(\ce{CO2}\) to \(\ce{CO}\) and other useful substances.

Direct decomposition

Direct decomposition of \(\ce{CO2}\) to \(\ce{CO}\) and \(\ce{O2}\) is a highly endothermic process which requires a large amount of energy – from heat or from light.

6.1 Estimate the temperature (in K) at which half of \(\ce{CO2}\) decomposes at equilibrium at a total pressure of 1 bar.

Catalytic decomposition

The use of metal/metal oxide catalytic systems allows the temperature of \(\ce{CO2}\) decomposition to be significantly reduced and eases the separation of the gaseous products by using thermochemical cycles.

Consider a catalytic cycle based on the \(\ce{Zn}/\ce{ZnO}\) system and containing two reactions. The net reaction is \(\ce{CO2}\) decomposition into \(\ce{CO}\) and \(\ce{O2}\). Reaction 1 is exothermic, while Reaction 2 is highly endothermic – the reactants should be heated to the required temperature.

6.2 Write equations for Reaction 1 and Reaction 2.

The operating temperature for Reaction 1 is 1073 K.

6.3 Calculate the equilibrium constant, \(K\), for Reaction 1 and find the degree of \(\ce{CO2}\) conversion, \(x\), at this temperature.

Reaction 2 is performed at the much higher temperature of 2000 K.

6.4 Calculate the equilibrium pressure of oxygen, \(p(\ce{O2})\), in bar, at this temperature.

Photocatalytic reduction

Photocatalytic reduction of \(\ce{CO2}\) with water is akin to natural photosynthesis. Plants convert \(\ce{CO2}\) to carbohydrates as an energy source, but human civilisation needs hydrocarbons to produce energy. On the way from \(\ce{CO2}\) to \(\ce{C_{x}H_{y}}\) there are many possible intermediate products of \(\ce{CO2}\) reduction.

6.5 Complete the table with the formulae of the one-carbon species from \(\ce{CO2}\) reduction, containing only \(\ce{H}\) and/or \(\ce{O}\) atoms in addition to the one \(\ce{C}\). The oxidation number of the carbon in each species is shown. For the oxidation state +2 give the formulae of both an anion "anion" and a neutral molecule "neutral molecule". Indicate only one species in each box.

+3 +2 (anion) +2 (neutral molecule) 0 −2 −4

Visible light (\(400\ \mathrm{nm}<\lambda<700\ \mathrm{nm}\)) makes up >40% of the total solar radiation reaching Earth. Light can be absorbed by semiconductors or dyes, leading to electronic excitation which can promote redox reactions. The band gaps of some common semiconductors are listed.

Semiconductor \(\ce{CdS}\) \(\ce{Ge}\) \(\ce{Si}\) \(\ce{SiC}\) \(\ce{WO3}\) \(\ce{ZrO2}\)
Band gap / eV 2.4 0.67 1.1 3.2 2.8 5.0

6.6 Tick which semiconductor(s) can be excited by visible light to serve as a potential photocatalyst(s). Support your answer with calculations.

In an early photocatalysis experiment, \(\ce{SiC}\) semiconductor was suspended in \(V=100\ \mathrm{mL}\) of water, and \(\ce{CO2}\) was bubbled through at a rate of \(v=3.0\ \mathrm{L\,min^{-1}}\) (\(T=25\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\), \(p=1\ \mathrm{atm}\)). The suspension was irradiated by a \(P=500\ \mathrm{W}\) lamp (\(\lambda=365\ \mathrm{nm}\)) for \(t=7\ \mathrm{h}\). After irradiation, the solution contained \(c(\ce{HCHO})=1.0\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{M}\) and \(c(\ce{CH3OH})=5.4\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{M}\).

The apparent quantum yield \(\phi\) is defined as:

\[ \phi=\frac{N_e}{N_i}, \]

where \(N_e\) is the number of electrons transferred and \(N_i\) is the number of incident photons.

6.7 Calculate the total degree of \(\ce{CO2}\) conversion, \(\eta\), and the apparent quantum yield of photocatalytic reduction, \(\phi\).

Periodic table and data sheet

Physical constants and formulae

Avogadro constant \(N_A\) \(6.022\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}\)
molar gas constant \(R\) \(8.314\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}\)
Faraday constant \(F\) \(96485\ \mathrm{C\,mol^{-1}}\)
Planck constant \(h\) \(6.626\times10^{-34}\ \mathrm{J\,s}\)
speed of light in vacuum \(c\) \(2.998\times10^8\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\)
mass of electron \(m_e\) \(9.109\times10^{-31}\ \mathrm{kg}\)
charge of electron \(e\) \(1.602\times10^{-19}\ \mathrm{C}\)
atmospheric pressure \(p_{\mathrm{atm}}\) \(101325\ \mathrm{Pa}\)
ionic product of water at 298 K \(K_{\mathrm W}\) \(10^{-14}\)
\(1\ \mathrm{nm}=1\times10^{-9}\ \mathrm{m}\)
\(1\ \text{Å}=1\times10^{-10}\ \mathrm{m}\)
\(1\ \mathrm{pm}=1\times10^{-12}\ \mathrm{m}\)
\(0\,^\circ\mathrm{C}=273.15\ \mathrm{K}\)
\(1\ \mathrm{kWh}=3600\ \mathrm{kJ}\)
\(1\ \mathrm{W}=1\ \mathrm{J\,s^{-1}}\)
\(1\ \mathrm{eV}=1.602\times10^{-19}\ \mathrm{J}\)
\(1\ \mathrm{bar}=10^5\ \mathrm{Pa}\)
area of triangle \(A=\frac12 ab\cdot\sin C\)
volume of cube \(V=a^3\)
volume of sphere \(V=\frac43\pi r^3\)
surface area of sphere \(S=4\pi r^2\)
ideal gas equation \(pV=nRT\)
frequency of light \(\nu=\frac{c}{\lambda}\)
energy of a photon \(E=\frac{hc}{\lambda}\)
Beer-Lambert law \(A=\log\left(\frac{I_0}{I}\right)=\varepsilon cd\)
spin-only magnetic moment \(\mu=\sqrt{n(n+2)}\ \mathrm{BM}\)
Henderson–Hasselbalch equation \(\mathrm{pH}=\mathrm{p}K_a+\log\left(\frac{[\ce{A-}]}{[\ce{HA}]}\right)\)
\(0^{\mathrm{th}}\) order integrated rate law \([\ce{A}]=[\ce{A}]_0-kt\)
\(1^{\mathrm{st}}\) order integrated rate law \(\ln[\ce{A}]=\ln[\ce{A}]_0-kt\)
Arrhenius equation \(k=A\cdot e^{-E_a/(RT)}\)
enthalpy \(H=U+pV\)
Gibbs energy \(G=H-TS\)
standard Gibbs energy change \(\Delta_{\mathrm r}G^\circ=-RT\ln K=-nFE^\circ_{\mathrm{cell}}\)
Clausius-Clapeyron equation \(\ln\left(\frac{P_1}{P_2}\right)=\frac{\Delta H_{\mathrm{vap}}}{R}\left(\frac{1}{T_2}-\frac{1}{T_1}\right)\)
specific heat \(Q=mC_p\Delta T\)
boiling point elevation \(\Delta T=iK_bm_i\)
freezing point depression \(\Delta T=iK_fm_i\)

Consider all gases ideal unless told otherwise.

In equilibrium constant calculations, all concentrations are referenced to a concentration of \(1\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}\).

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 6.1: \(\boxed{T\approx3.04\times10^3\ \mathrm{K}}\).
  • 6.2: At the stated operating temperatures:
  • Reaction 1: \(\boxed{\ce{Zn(l) + CO2(g) -> ZnO(s) + CO(g)}}\).
  • Reaction 2: \(\boxed{\ce{ZnO(s) -> Zn(g) + 1/2 O2(g)}}\).
  • 6.3: For Reaction 1 as written, \(\boxed{K=2.46\times10^2}\) and \(\boxed{x=0.99595\approx99.6\%}\).
  • 6.4: \(\boxed{p(\ce{O2})=0.121\ \mathrm{bar}}\).
  • 6.5: Fill the boxes, from left to right, with: \(\ce{CO2^{\bullet-}}\) — carbon dioxide radical anion, [O-][C]=O; \(\ce{HCOO-}\) — formate, O=C[O-]; \(\ce{CO}\) — carbon monoxide, [C-]#[O+]; \(\ce{HCHO}\) — formaldehyde, C=O; \(\ce{CH3OH}\) — methanol, CO; \(\ce{CH4}\) — methane, C.
  • 6.6: Tick \(\boxed{\ce{CdS},\ \ce{Ge},\ \ce{Si},\ \ce{WO3}}\).
  • 6.7: \(\boxed{\eta\approx1.2\times10^{-5}=0.0012\%}\) and \(\boxed{\phi\approx9.5\times10^{-5}=0.0095\%}\).

Solution

Use the standard pressure \(p^\circ=1\ \mathrm{bar}\), dimensionless gas activities \(p_i/p^\circ\), and unit activities for pure solid and liquid phases. The standard formation enthalpies of \(\ce{O2(g)}\) and \(\ce{Zn(s)}\) are zero.

The molecular species appearing in the reaction equations include carbon dioxide, \(\ce{CO2}\), O=C=O; carbon monoxide, \(\ce{CO}\), [C-]#[O+]; dioxygen, \(\ce{O2}\), O=O; and water, \(\ce{H2O}\), O. The dioxygen SMILES does not encode its triplet electronic ground state. The metals, metal oxides and other solid semiconductors are extended phases whose crystal structures are not represented by molecular SMILES.

6.1

Write the decomposition per mole of carbon dioxide:

\[ \ce{CO2(g) <=> CO(g) + 1/2 O2(g)}. \]

Starting with \(1.00\ \mathrm{mol}\) of pure carbon dioxide, 50% decomposition gives

\[ n(\ce{CO2})=0.50\ \mathrm{mol},\qquad n(\ce{CO})=0.50\ \mathrm{mol},\qquad n(\ce{O2})=0.25\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

The total amount is \(1.25\ \mathrm{mol}\). At a total pressure of \(1\ \mathrm{bar}\),

\[ p(\ce{CO2})=0.40\ \mathrm{bar},\qquad p(\ce{CO})=0.40\ \mathrm{bar},\qquad p(\ce{O2})=0.20\ \mathrm{bar}. \]

Therefore, the required equilibrium constant is

\[ K= \frac{[p(\ce{CO})/p^\circ]\,[p(\ce{O2})/p^\circ]^{1/2}} {p(\ce{CO2})/p^\circ} = \frac{0.40\sqrt{0.20}}{0.40} =\sqrt{0.20}=0.447214. \]

The standard reaction enthalpy and entropy are

\[ \Delta_{\mathrm r}H^\circ =-110.5-(-393.5) =283.0\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}, \]

\[ \Delta_{\mathrm r}S^\circ =197.7+\frac12(205.1)-213.8 =86.45\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}}. \]

Using

\[ \Delta_{\mathrm r}H^\circ-T\Delta_{\mathrm r}S^\circ =-RT\ln K, \]

we obtain

\[ T= \frac{\Delta_{\mathrm r}H^\circ} {\Delta_{\mathrm r}S^\circ-R\ln K} = \frac{283000} {86.45-8.314\ln(0.447214)} =3038.4\ \mathrm{K}. \]

Thus,

\[ \boxed{T\approx3.04\times10^3\ \mathrm{K}}. \]

6.2

In Reaction 1, zinc is oxidized from oxidation state \(0\) to \(+2\), while carbon is reduced from \(+4\) in carbon dioxide to \(+2\) in carbon monoxide:

\[ \boxed{\ce{Zn(l) + CO2(g) -> ZnO(s) + CO(g)}}. \]

Zinc is liquid at \(1073\ \mathrm{K}\), since

\[ 692.7<1073<1180. \]

Zinc oxide remains solid. The enthalpy change is

\[ \begin{aligned} \Delta_{\mathrm r}H_1^\circ &=[-350.5+(-110.5)]-[6.5+(-393.5)]\\ &=-74.0\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}, \end{aligned} \]

confirming that Reaction 1 is exothermic.

Reaction 2 regenerates zinc by decomposing zinc oxide:

\[ \boxed{\ce{ZnO(s) -> Zn(g) + 1/2 O2(g)}}. \]

At \(2000\ \mathrm{K}\), zinc is gaseous because this temperature exceeds its boiling point, while zinc oxide is still solid because \(2000<2247\ \mathrm{K}\). Its reaction enthalpy is

\[ \Delta_{\mathrm r}H_2^\circ =130.4-(-350.5) =480.9\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}, \]

so it is highly endothermic.

The zinc vapor is cooled and condensed before reuse in Reaction 1. Including this physical recycling step, \(\ce{Zn(g) -> Zn(l)}\), the net chemical reaction is

\[ \ce{CO2(g) -> CO(g) + 1/2 O2(g)}. \]

6.3

For Reaction 1,

\[ \Delta_{\mathrm r}S_1^\circ =43.7+197.7-50.8-213.8 =-23.2\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}}. \]

At \(1073\ \mathrm{K}\),

\[ \begin{aligned} \Delta_{\mathrm r}G_1^\circ &=\Delta_{\mathrm r}H_1^\circ -T\Delta_{\mathrm r}S_1^\circ\\ &=-74000-1073(-23.2)\\ &=-49106.4\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}}. \end{aligned} \]

Hence,

\[ K= \exp\left(-\frac{\Delta_{\mathrm r}G_1^\circ}{RT}\right) = \exp\left(\frac{49106.4}{8.314(1073)}\right) =245.83. \]

Thus,

\[ \boxed{K=2.46\times10^2}. \]

With pure liquid zinc and solid zinc oxide present,

\[ K=\frac{p(\ce{CO})}{p(\ce{CO2})}. \]

Starting with carbon dioxide and no carbon monoxide, let \(x\) be the fraction of carbon dioxide converted. The carbon monoxide and remaining carbon dioxide amounts are proportional to \(x\) and \(1-x\), respectively. Therefore,

\[ K=\frac{x}{1-x}, \qquad x=\frac{K}{1+K}. \]

This gives

\[ \boxed{x=\frac{245.83}{246.83}=0.99595\approx99.6\%}. \]

This equilibrium conversion assumes sufficient zinc is available.

6.4

For

\[ \ce{ZnO(s) <=> Zn(g) + 1/2 O2(g)}, \]

the entropy change is

\[ \Delta_{\mathrm r}S_2^\circ =161.0+\frac12(205.1)-43.7 =219.85\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}}. \]

At \(2000\ \mathrm{K}\),

\[ \Delta_{\mathrm r}G_2^\circ =480900-2000(219.85) =41200\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}}. \]

Thus,

\[ K_2= \exp\left(-\frac{41200}{8.314(2000)}\right) =0.083932. \]

Because zinc is gaseous, its partial pressure must appear in the equilibrium expression:

\[ K_2= \frac{p(\ce{Zn})}{p^\circ} \left(\frac{p(\ce{O2})}{p^\circ}\right)^{1/2}. \]

For gases generated solely by zinc oxide decomposition, the stoichiometry gives

\[ n(\ce{Zn})=2n(\ce{O2}), \qquad p(\ce{Zn})=2p(\ce{O2}). \]

Consequently,

\[ K_2=2\left(\frac{p(\ce{O2})}{p^\circ}\right)^{3/2}, \]

and

\[ p(\ce{O2}) =p^\circ\left(\frac{K_2}{2}\right)^{2/3} =(1\ \mathrm{bar}) \left(\frac{0.083932}{2}\right)^{2/3}. \]

Therefore,

\[ \boxed{p(\ce{O2})=0.121\ \mathrm{bar}}. \]

6.5

Assign hydrogen oxidation number \(+1\) and oxygen oxidation number \(-2\). The sum of the oxidation numbers equals the overall charge.

Carbon oxidation number Species to enter Name and SMILES Oxidation-number check
\(+3\) \(\ce{CO2^{\bullet-}}\) Carbon dioxide radical anion, [O-][C]=O \(+3+2(-2)=-1\)
\(+2\), anion \(\ce{HCOO-}\) Formate ion, O=C[O-] \(+2+1+2(-2)=-1\)
\(+2\), neutral molecule \(\ce{CO}\) Carbon monoxide, [C-]#[O+] \(+2-2=0\)
\(0\) \(\ce{HCHO}\) Formaldehyde (methanal), C=O \(0+2(+1)-2=0\)
\(-2\) \(\ce{CH3OH}\) Methanol, CO \(-2+4(+1)-2=0\)
\(-4\) \(\ce{CH4}\) Methane, C \(-4+4(+1)=0\)

The \(+3\) species results from one-electron reduction of carbon dioxide. Its SMILES represents one localized Lewis structure; it does not encode the bent geometry or resonance delocalization. The formal charges in carbon monoxide’s SMILES are distinct from its oxidation numbers.

6.6

The energy of a photon is

\[ E=\frac{hc}{\lambda}. \]

Using the supplied constants,

\[ E\ (\mathrm{eV}) = \frac{(6.626\times10^{-34})(2.998\times10^8)} {\lambda\ (\mathrm{nm})\times10^{-9}(1.602\times10^{-19})} \approx\frac{1240}{\lambda\ (\mathrm{nm})}. \]

At the boundaries of the visible range,

\[ E(400\ \mathrm{nm})\approx3.10\ \mathrm{eV}, \qquad E(700\ \mathrm{nm})\approx1.77\ \mathrm{eV}. \]

A photon can excite an electron across the band gap when \(E\ge E_g\). Equivalently, the longest wavelength capable of excitation is

\[ \lambda_{\max}\ (\mathrm{nm})\approx\frac{1240}{E_g\ (\mathrm{eV})}. \]

Semiconductor \(E_g\ /\ \mathrm{eV}\) Approximate \(\lambda_{\max}\ /\ \mathrm{nm}\) Visible-light excitation
Cadmium sulfide, \(\ce{CdS}\) 2.4 517 Tick
Germanium, \(\ce{Ge}\) 0.67 1850 Tick
Silicon, \(\ce{Si}\) 1.1 1130 Tick
Silicon carbide, \(\ce{SiC}\) 3.2 388 Leave unticked
Tungsten(VI) oxide, \(\ce{WO3}\) 2.8 443 Tick
Zirconium(IV) oxide, \(\ce{ZrO2}\) 5.0 248 Leave unticked

Thus,

\[ \boxed{\ce{CdS},\ \ce{Ge},\ \ce{Si},\ \ce{WO3}}. \]

Germanium and silicon qualify because visible photons have more energy than their band gaps. This calculation establishes optical excitation; band gaps alone do not establish the suitability of the band-edge potentials for a particular redox reaction.

6.7

The irradiation and gas-flow duration is

\[ t=7(60)=420\ \mathrm{min}=25200\ \mathrm{s}. \]

The total volume of carbon dioxide supplied, measured at the stated inlet conditions, is

\[ V_{\mathrm{feed}} =(3.0\ \mathrm{L\,min^{-1}})(420\ \mathrm{min}) =1260\ \mathrm{L} =1.260\ \mathrm{m^3}. \]

At \(25\,^\circ\mathrm{C}=298.15\ \mathrm{K}\) and \(1\ \mathrm{atm}=101325\ \mathrm{Pa}\),

\[ n_{\mathrm{feed}}(\ce{CO2}) =\frac{pV_{\mathrm{feed}}}{RT} = \frac{101325(1.260)} {8.314(298.15)} =51.50\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

The product amounts in \(0.100\ \mathrm{L}\) of solution are

\[ n(\ce{HCHO}) =(1.0\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{mol\,L^{-1}}) (0.100\ \mathrm{L}) =1.0\times10^{-4}\ \mathrm{mol}, \]

\[ n(\ce{CH3OH}) =(5.4\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{mol\,L^{-1}}) (0.100\ \mathrm{L}) =5.4\times10^{-4}\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

Each product molecule contains one carbon atom, so

\[ n_{\mathrm{converted}}(\ce{CO2}) =1.0\times10^{-4}+5.4\times10^{-4} =6.4\times10^{-4}\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

Therefore,

\[ \eta =\frac{n_{\mathrm{converted}}(\ce{CO2})} {n_{\mathrm{feed}}(\ce{CO2})} =\frac{6.4\times10^{-4}}{51.50} =1.2426\times10^{-5}. \]

To two significant figures,

\[ \boxed{\eta=1.2\times10^{-5}=0.0012\%}. \]

For the quantum yield, reduction from carbon oxidation state \(+4\) to \(0\) in formaldehyde requires four electrons per molecule; reduction to \(-2\) in methanol requires six electrons per molecule. The corresponding overall reactions with water are

\[ \ce{CO2 + H2O -> HCHO + O2}, \]

\[ \ce{CO2 + 2H2O -> CH3OH + 3/2 O2}. \]

Thus, the amount of electrons transferred is

\[ \begin{aligned} n_e &=4n(\ce{HCHO})+6n(\ce{CH3OH})\\ &=4(1.0\times10^{-4})+6(5.4\times10^{-4})\\ &=3.64\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{mol}. \end{aligned} \]

The number of transferred electrons is

\[ N_e=n_eN_A =(3.64\times10^{-3})(6.022\times10^{23}) =2.1920\times10^{21}. \]

The energy per incident photon is

\[ E_\gamma =\frac{hc}{\lambda} =\frac{(6.626\times10^{-34})(2.998\times10^8)} {365\times10^{-9}} =5.4424\times10^{-19}\ \mathrm{J}. \]

Using the stated lamp power as the incident monochromatic radiant power,

\[ E_{\mathrm{incident}}=Pt =(500\ \mathrm{J\,s^{-1}})(25200\ \mathrm{s}) =1.260\times10^7\ \mathrm{J}. \]

Therefore,

\[ N_i =\frac{Pt}{E_\gamma} =\frac{1.260\times10^7}{5.4424\times10^{-19}} =2.3152\times10^{25}. \]

Finally,

\[ \phi =\frac{N_e}{N_i} =\frac{2.1920\times10^{21}}{2.3152\times10^{25}} =9.4681\times10^{-5}. \]

To two significant figures,

\[ \boxed{\phi=9.5\times10^{-5}=0.0095\%}. \]

The solution was checked against the official solution.