IChO 2025 · Theory problem 2

Rapamycin - A molecular glue

6.5% of the total

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Total
12 19 18 18 67
Figure 1

Rapamycin was isolated from the bacterium Streptomyces hygroscopicus in 1972. It acts as a “molecular glue” and inhibits the activity of the protein mTOR through binding to another protein. It has been used to treat various diseases. The stereochemical complexity of rapamycin makes its total synthesis challenging. The figure shows part of the first total synthesis by the Nicolaou group.

Figure 2

The major stereoisomer (C) is formed from the chromium-mediated coupling reaction of aldehyde A and vinyl iodide B and can be predicted using the Felkin-Anh model without chelation.

2.1a Draw a Newman projection showing the best approach of the nucleophile in this reaction. Use the labels =O, –H, –R\(^{1}\), –OMe, and Nu.

2.1b Draw the full structure of the major diastereomer C showing all stereochemistry.

After a few transformations, C can be converted into an aldehyde D which reacts with E to form F. F can be further transformed into rapamycin.

2.2a Using the Zimmerman-Traxler model, predict the arrangement of the reactants as they come together to form the six-membered ring transition state in the reaction to form F. Draw the substituents at positions labelled with numbers. If a position does not have a substituent, put an “X” in the box. Boxes 1 and 2 have been filled in as an example. You may use the abbreviation R\(^{2}\) as given in the scheme above.

Figure 3

2.2b Draw the structure of F showing all stereochemistry. You may use the abbreviation R\(^{2}\) as given in the scheme above.

Whilst stereochemical control is challenging synthetically, the biological synthesis controls stereochemistry elegantly through an assembly line of various enzymes.

The carbon chain is built up through the addition of monomers. These units are connected via a thioester to Coenzyme A (CoA).

The functions of the various enzymes and proteins are shown in the table.

Abbreviation Name Function
ACP Acyl-carrier protein Carries growing chain between domains
CoL CoA-Ligase Activates a carboxylic acid substrate to be loaded onto the ACP
AT Acyltransferase Selects monomer and transfers to ACP
KS Ketosynthase Accepts growing chain from previous ACP and activates it for Claisen condensation with next monomer-loaded ACP
KR Ketoreductase Reduces carbonyl of a previous monomer to a hydroxyl
DH Dehydratase Forms \(\alpha,\beta\)-unsaturated thioester via elimination on the previous monomer
ER Enoylreductase Reduces \(\alpha,\beta\)-unsaturated thioester to saturated chain on the previous monomer

The first part of the assembly line is shown with blanks. The enzymes are shown in circles and act in the order of the arrow.

Figure 4

2.3a Draw in the hexagons the structure of the monomer needed by the enzyme AT at each of the points numbered 1-4. Carbon dioxide is released when the monomers are incorporated. The monomers have the following general structure where the R group is anionic:

Figure 5

2.3b Fill in each circle with the abbreviations of enzyme(s) needed. Write “X” if no additional enzyme is needed.

2.3c Complete the rectangles with the structure of the growing molecule attached to the enzyme.

The final steps of the enzymatic synthesis are shown below.

Figure 6

The building blocks involved were determined by feeding the bacterium with three different \(^{13}\)C-labelled starting materials which are incorporated into the monomers (\(^{13}\)C are circled as shown below):

Figure 7

2.4 Circle the carbons in rapamycin that will be \(^{13}\)C-labelled when the bacterium is fed with each of the three starting materials a-c in turn, following the guidelines on the next page. Incorrect circles will be penalised but there is no negative scoring.

Guidelines for circling carbon atoms:

  • Each circle should clearly surround one carbon atom
  • Do not include multiple carbon atoms in the same circle
  • Do not circle any bonds
Figure 8
  • If you would like to change your answer and cross-out a circle, put an “X” over the circle.
Figure 9

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

In the SMILES below, [*:2] represents the permitted abbreviation \(R^2\). The macromolecular abbreviations are S[*:90] for \(\ce{SCoA}\) and S[*:91] for \(\ce{SACP}\). Other asterisks mark a fragment’s attachment point.

  • 2.1a. View from the aldehyde carbon towards its adjacent stereogenic carbon. Put the front \(=\mathrm O\) at 9 o’clock and front H at 3 o’clock. On the rear carbon put OMe at 6 o’clock, \(R^1\) at 10 o’clock, and H at 2 o’clock. Draw Nu approaching the front carbon from above, opposite the rear C–OMe bond, with the usual Bürgi–Dunitz approach.

  • 2.1b. The major Felkin–Anh coupling product C has the \(R\) configuration at the newly formed alcohol centre:

C=C[C@@H](C)C[C@@H](C)[C@@H](OCc1ccc(OC)cc1)[C@H](OC)[C@H](O)/C(C)=C/[C@@H](C)[C@@H](OCc1ccc(OC)cc1)CCO[Si](C)(C)C(C)(C)C

  • 2.2a. Fill the supplied chair as follows. The auxiliary is attached through its nitrogen; \(R^3\) is the protected cyclohexylmethyl group defined in the solution.
Position Entry
1 \(n\)-Bu
2 \(n\)-Bu
3 The \(N\)-attached \((4R,5S)\)-4-methyl-5-phenyloxazolidin-2-one auxiliary
4 X
5 H
6 \(R^3=\ce{CH2}\)–protected cyclohexyl
7 \(\ce{CH2}R^2\)
8 H
  • 2.2b. F is the \((2R,3S)\) syn aldol adduct, numbering its acyl chain from the auxiliary-bound carbonyl:

[*:2]C[C@H](O)[C@@H](C[C@H]1C[C@@H](OC)[C@H](O[Si](C)(C)C(C)(C)C)CC1)C(=O)N1[C@H](C)[C@H](c2ccccc2)OC1=O

  • 2.3a. The monomers are:
Hexagon Monomer SMILES
1 Methylmalonyl-CoA carboxylate C[C@@H](C(=O)[O-])C(=O)S[*:90]
2 Malonyl-CoA carboxylate O=C([O-])CC(=O)S[*:90]
3 Methylmalonyl-CoA carboxylate C[C@@H](C(=O)[O-])C(=O)S[*:90]
4 Methylmalonyl-CoA carboxylate C[C@@H](C(=O)[O-])C(=O)S[*:90]

The methylmalonyl SMILES specifies the conventional \((2S)\) substrate; the problem itself does not give the extender's absolute configuration.

  • 2.3b. The circles, in order, contain KR, DH, ER; KR; X; KR, DH.

  • 2.3c. The three ACP-bound intermediates are:

Rectangle 1 — first extension product:

[*:91]SC(=O)[C@H](C)C[C@H]1C[C@@H](O)[C@H](O)CC1

Rectangle 2 — second extension product:

[*:91]SC(=O)C[C@H](O)[C@H](C)C[C@H]1C[C@@H](O)[C@H](O)CC1

Rectangle 3 — third extension product:

[*:91]SC(=O)[C@@H](C)C(=O)C[C@H](O)[C@H](C)C[C@H]1C[C@@H](O)[C@H](O)CC1

  • 2.4. Define \(P_1\) as the polyketide-derived amide carbonyl bonded to the pipecolate nitrogen. Number consecutively along the carbon backbone to \(P_{29}\), the methylene attached to the cyclohexyl ring. An atom-mapped SMILES specifying this numbering appears below.
Feed Carbons to circle individually Number of circles
a \(P_4,P_{10},P_{16},P_{18},P_{22},P_{24},P_{28}\), and the methyl carbon attached to each of these seven atoms 14
b \(P_1,P_5,P_7,P_{11},P_{13},P_{19},P_{25}\) 7
c \(P_2,P_6,P_8,P_{12},P_{14},P_{20},P_{26}\) 7

Solution

2.1a — Felkin–Anh projection

The protected \(\alpha\)-methoxy aldehyde A is:

C=C[C@@H](C)C[C@@H](C)[C@@H](OCc1ccc(OC)cc1)[C@H](OC)C=O

Its carbon adjacent to the aldehyde has the \(S\) configuration. Here \(R^1\) denotes the rest of the carbon chain attached to that centre.

For the non-chelated, polar Felkin–Anh model, orient the C–OMe bond approximately perpendicular to the carbonyl plane. Nucleophilic attack occurs opposite this bond, along a Bürgi–Dunitz trajectory, with a nucleophile–carbonyl-carbon–oxygen angle of approximately \(107^\circ\).

A precise Newman specification is:

Component Position when looking from \(\ce{CHO}\) towards the adjacent carbon
Front carbonyl oxygen 9 o’clock
Front aldehydic hydrogen 3 o’clock
Rear OMe 6 o’clock
Rear \(R^1\) 10 o’clock
Rear hydrogen 2 o’clock
Incoming Nu Approaches from above the front carbon, opposite the rear OMe

The projection fixes both the substrate’s handedness and the face of attack. Ordinary SMILES cannot specify this approach geometry; the substrate and product SMILES specify the corresponding configurations.

2.1b — Structure of C

The protected vinyl iodide B is:

I/C(C)=C/[C@@H](C)[C@@H](OCc1ccc(OC)cc1)CCO[Si](C)(C)C(C)(C)C

Chromium-mediated activation replaces the vinyl C–I bond by a nucleophilic carbon–chromium bond. That vinyl carbon attacks the aldehyde carbon of A. Protonation of the resulting alkoxide gives C.

The formal, atom- and charge-balanced reductive coupling is

\[ \ce{RCHO + R'I + 2e- + H+ -> RCH(OH)R' + I-}. \]

Here \(\ce{RCHO}\) represents A, and \(\ce{R'I}\) represents B. The proton is [H+], and the iodide ion is [I-]. This equation expresses the net redox balance without assigning particular chromium coordination species.

The resulting connectivity is

\[ \begin{aligned} &\ce{CH2=CH-CH(Me)-CH2-CH(Me)-CH(OPMB)-CH(OMe)}\\ &\qquad\ce{-CH(OH)-C(Me)=CH-CH(Me)-CH(OPMB)-CH2-CH2-OTBS}. \end{aligned} \]

All pre-existing stereogenic centres retain their spatial configurations, and the vinyl geometry is retained. The new alcohol centre is \(R\), as specified by the complete SMILES in Answers.

To draw it with the left-hand portion of A kept in its original zigzag orientation, continue the chain through the former aldehyde carbon and draw its new OH bond hashed and upward. The adjacent OMe bond remains solid-wedged and downward.

The completed structure has molecular formula \(\ce{C41H66O7Si}\), matching the formula supplied in the scheme.

2.2a — Zimmerman–Traxler transition state

The aldehyde D is \(R^2\)-substituted ethanal:

[*:2]CC=O

The chiral \(N\)-acyl oxazolidinone E is:

O=C(N1[C@H](C)[C@H](c2ccccc2)OC1=O)CC[C@H]1C[C@@H](OC)[C@H](O[Si](C)(C)C(C)(C)C)CC1

Define the two substituents used in the chair:

Symbol or description Name and attachment-point SMILES
Auxiliary at position 3 \(N\)-attached \((4R,5S)\)-4-methyl-5-phenyloxazolidin-2-one: *N1[C@H](C)[C@H](c2ccccc2)OC1=O
\(R^3\), at position 6 Protected cyclohexylmethyl group: *C[C@H]1C[C@@H](OC)[C@H](O[Si](C)(C)C(C)(C)C)CC1
\(n\)-Bu, at positions 1 and 2 Butan-1-yl group: *CCCC

The boron reagent and base produce the \(Z\) boron enolate of E. Its constitution and enolate geometry can be represented as:

CCCCB(CCCC)O/C(N1[C@H](C)[C@H](c2ccccc2)OC1=O)=C\C[C@H]1C[C@@H](OC)[C@H](O[Si](C)(C)C(C)(C)C)CC1

The aldehyde oxygen coordinates to boron, and the new carbon–carbon bond forms through a six-membered chair-like transition state. In the particular perspective printed in the question, the ring atoms run in this order:

\[ \mathrm{B} -\mathrm{O}_{E} -\mathrm{C}_{E} -\mathrm{C}_{\alpha} -\mathrm{C}_{D} -\mathrm{O}_{D} -\mathrm{B}. \]

Consequently:

  • The upper-right carbon bearing positions 3/4 is the enolate carbonyl-derived carbon.
  • The right-hand carbon bearing 5/6 is the enolate \(\alpha\)-carbon.
  • The lower-middle carbon bearing 7/8 is the aldehyde carbon.

The entries therefore are:

Position Substituent Reason
1 \(n\)-Bu First alkyl ligand on boron
2 \(n\)-Bu Second alkyl ligand on boron
3 \(N\)-attached chiral auxiliary Substituent on the enolate carbonyl-derived carbon
4 X No fourth substituent at that carbon
5 H Hydrogen on the enolate \(\alpha\)-carbon
6 \(R^3\) Original side chain of E
7 \(\ce{CH2}R^2\) Aldehyde substituent, in the favourable equatorial position
8 H Aldehydic hydrogen

This assignment gives the \(2R,3S\) product. The identification of positions 3/4 as the enolate carbon and 7/8 as the aldehyde carbon is essential to preserving the handedness of the supplied chair.

2.2b — Structure of F

The aldol addition gives the connectivity

\[ \ce{R^2CH2-CH(OH)-CH(R^3)-C(=O)-N(Aux)}. \]

No carbon atoms are lost. In generic form, the balanced aldol addition is

\[ \ce{RCHO + R'CH2C(=O)N(Aux) -> RCH(OH)CH(R')C(=O)N(Aux)}. \]

The \(Z\) enolate gives the syn relationship between the new OH group and \(R^3\). The auxiliary selects the face that gives \(2R,3S\), counting the auxiliary-bound carbonyl carbon as C1.

For a drawing, place the chain

\[ \ce{C(=O)-CH(R^3)-CH(OH)-CH2R^2} \]

as a conventional zigzag running left to right. Draw both \(R^3\) and OH with solid wedges; their corresponding hydrogens point behind the plane. Retain the auxiliary’s \((4R,5S)\) configuration and all three cyclohexyl stereocentres. This drawing corresponds to the SMILES for F in Answers.

2.3a — Identification of the monomers

Let \(Q\) denote the cyclohexyl group with the ring stereochemistry shown in the supplied product. Reading the four-module product from the starter end towards ACP gives

\[ \ce{ Q-CH2-CH(Me)-CH(OH)-CH2-C(=O)-CH(Me)-CH=C(Me)-C(=O)-SACP }. \]

Every extension contributes two backbone carbons. A methylmalonyl unit also supplies a methyl branch on its newly introduced \(\alpha\)-carbon.

The successive extensions therefore require:

Module Substitution of the newly introduced \(\alpha\)-carbon Required extender
1 Methyl-substituted Methylmalonyl-CoA
2 Unsubstituted Malonyl-CoA
3 Methyl-substituted Methylmalonyl-CoA
4 Methyl-substituted Methylmalonyl-CoA

The generic decarboxylative chain extension, written after loading the extender onto its ACP, is

\[ \ce{ R-C(=O)-SACP + ^-OOC-CH(R')-C(=O)-SACP' + H+ -> R-C(=O)-CH(R')-C(=O)-SACP' + CO2 + HSACP }. \]

Here \(R'=\ce{H}\) for malonyl and \(R'=\ce{Me}\) for methylmalonyl. Carbon dioxide is O=C=O. The released carbon is the extender’s free carboxylate carbon.

As a carbon-count check, the seven-carbon starter plus these four extensions gives

\[ 7+3+2+3+3=18 \]

carbons in the displayed four-module acyl chain, including its cyclohexyl ring and methyl branches.

2.3b — Identification of the enzymes

The processing domains act on the carbonyl that becomes the \(\beta\)-carbonyl after the current extension.

Module Fate required for that carbonyl Enzymes, in order
1 Ketone \(\rightarrow\) alcohol \(\rightarrow\) alkene \(\rightarrow\) methylene KR, DH, ER
2 Ketone \(\rightarrow\) alcohol KR
3 Carbonyl remains a ketone X
4 Ketone \(\rightarrow\) alcohol \(\rightarrow\) alkene KR, DH

Their net transformations can be written as balanced reduction half-reactions and dehydration:

\[ \begin{aligned} \text{KR:}\quad& \ce{RCOCH(R')COSACP + 2H+ + 2e- -> RCH(OH)CH(R')COSACP} \\[2mm] \text{DH:}\quad& \ce{RCH(OH)CH(R')COSACP -> RCH=C(R')COSACP + H2O} \\[2mm] \text{ER:}\quad& \ce{RCH=C(R')COSACP + 2H+ + 2e- -> RCH2CH(R')COSACP}. \end{aligned} \]

Water has SMILES O. These equations show the reducing-equivalent balance without introducing cofactors absent from the question.

2.3c — The growing ACP-bound chains

The initially supplied ER saturates the starter’s ring double bond. The completed rectangles must then show:

Rectangle Chain, written from the cyclohexyl end towards ACP Configurations of acyl-chain stereocentres, numbered from the thioester carbonyl
1 \(\ce{Q-CH2-CH(Me)-C(=O)-SACP}\) \(2R\)
2 \(\ce{Q-CH2-CH(Me)-CH(OH)-CH2-C(=O)-SACP}\) \(3S,4R\)
3 \(\ce{Q-CH2-CH(Me)-CH(OH)-CH2-C(=O)-CH(Me)-C(=O)-SACP}\) \(2S,5S,6R\)

In all three, the cyclohexyl group has the \((1S,3R,4R)\) configuration for the substituted ring as numbered in these products. The complete stereochemical SMILES are given in Answers.

For a drawing matching the vertical orientation of the supplied final chain:

  • Retain the ring’s dashed H, dashed OH and solid-wedged OH.
  • Draw the methyl group introduced by module 1 on a solid wedge.
  • Draw the alcohol generated by module 2 with a hashed bond.
  • Draw the methyl group introduced by module 3 with a hashed bond.

After module 4, the resulting ACP-bound \(\alpha,\beta\)-unsaturated thioester is:

[*:91]SC(=O)/C(C)=C/[C@@H](C)C(=O)C[C@H](O)[C@H](C)C[C@H]1C[C@@H](O)[C@H](O)CC1

Its \(E\) double bond, retained ketone, alcohol and methyl branches reproduce the product printed at the right of the assembly line.

2.4 — Carbon tracing

Use the following explicit numbering of rapamycin:

  • \(P_1\): the amide carbonyl directly bonded to the pipecolate nitrogen.
  • \(P_2\): the adjacent ketone carbonyl.
  • \(P_3\): the OH-bearing hemiketal carbon.
  • Continue along the carbon backbone through the six-membered oxygen-containing ring, the triene and the lower portion of the macrocycle.
  • \(P_{27}\): the carbon whose oxygen forms the macrocyclic ester.
  • \(P_{28}\): the adjacent methyl-bearing side-chain carbon.
  • \(P_{29}\): the methylene directly attached to the cyclohexyl ring.

For complete positional identification, rapamycin has the following atom-mapped SMILES. Maps 1–29 are \(P_1\)–\(P_{29}\); map \(100+i\) denotes the methyl attached to \(P_i\):

[C:1]1(=O)[C:2](=O)[C@@:3]2(O)[C@H:4]([CH3:104])[CH2:5][CH2:6][C@H:7](O2)[CH2:8][C@H:9](O[CH3:209])/[C:10]([CH3:110])=[CH:11]/[CH:12]=[CH:13]/[CH:14]=[CH:15]/[C@@H:16]([CH3:116])[CH2:17][C@@H:18]([CH3:118])[C:19](=O)[C@H:20](O[CH3:220])[C@H:21](O)/[C:22]([CH3:122])=[CH:23]/[C@@H:24]([CH3:124])[C:25](=O)[CH2:26][C@@H:27]([C@H:28]([CH3:128])[CH2:29][C@H:30]2[CH2:31][C@@H:32](O[CH3:232])[C@H:33](O)[CH2:34][CH2:35]2)O[C:41](=O)[C@@H:36]2[CH2:37][CH2:38][CH2:39][CH2:40]N12

The formula of this structure is \(\ce{C51H79NO13}\).

The fourteen extender units supply consecutive carbon pairs. Each pair below is written as (original acyl carbonyl carbon, original \(\alpha\)-carbon):

Acetate-derived pairs Propionate-derived pairs
\((P_1,P_2)\) \((P_3,P_4)\)
\((P_5,P_6)\) \((P_9,P_{10})\)
\((P_7,P_8)\) \((P_{15},P_{16})\)
\((P_{11},P_{12})\) \((P_{17},P_{18})\)
\((P_{13},P_{14})\) \((P_{21},P_{22})\)
\((P_{19},P_{20})\) \((P_{23},P_{24})\)
\((P_{25},P_{26})\) \((P_{27},P_{28})\)

Carboxylation converts the acetate- and propionate-derived acyl units into malonyl and methylmalonyl extenders. The newly added carboxyl carbon is subsequently lost as \(\ce{CO2}\); the original acyl carbonyl carbon remains in the product.

Subsequent reduction, dehydration, cyclization, oxidation and methylation alter functional groups but preserve the identities of the backbone carbons.

The carbon count closes as

\[ \underbrace{7(2)}_{\text{acetate units}} +\underbrace{7(3)}_{\text{propionate units}} +\underbrace{7}_{\text{starter}} +\underbrace{6}_{\text{pipecolate}} +\underbrace{3}_{\text{O-methyl groups}} =51. \]

Feed a: sodium [2,3-\(^{13}\)C\(_2\)]propionate

Starting-material SMILES:

[13CH3][13CH2]C(=O)[O-].[Na+]

The labelled methylene carbon becomes the methyl-bearing backbone carbon, and the labelled terminal methyl remains its methyl branch. Therefore circle

\[ P_4,\ P_{10},\ P_{16},\ P_{18},\ P_{22},\ P_{24},\ P_{28}, \]

and the methyl attached to each one: 14 separate circles.

The corresponding labelled rapamycin is:

C1(=O)C(=O)[C@@]2(O)[13C@H]([13CH3])CC[C@H](O2)C[C@H](OC)/[13C]([13CH3])=C/C=C/C=C/[13C@@H]([13CH3])C[13C@@H]([13CH3])C(=O)[C@H](OC)[C@H](O)/[13C]([13CH3])=C/[13C@@H]([13CH3])C(=O)C[C@@H]([13C@H]([13CH3])C[C@H]2C[C@@H](OC)[C@H](O)CC2)OC(=O)[C@@H]2CCCCN12

Feed b: sodium [1-\(^{13}\)C]acetate

Starting-material SMILES:

C[13C](=O)[O-].[Na+]

The labelled carboxyl carbon becomes the first member of each acetate-derived pair. Therefore circle

\[ \boxed{P_1,\ P_5,\ P_7,\ P_{11},\ P_{13},\ P_{19},\ P_{25}} \]

for 7 separate circles.

The corresponding labelled rapamycin is:

[13C]1(=O)C(=O)[C@@]2(O)[C@H](C)[13CH2]C[13C@H](O2)C[C@H](OC)/C(C)=[13CH]/C=[13CH]/C=C/[C@@H](C)C[C@@H](C)[13C](=O)[C@H](OC)[C@H](O)/C(C)=C/[C@@H](C)[13C](=O)C[C@@H]([C@H](C)C[C@H]2C[C@@H](OC)[C@H](O)CC2)OC(=O)[C@@H]2CCCCN12

Feed c: sodium [2-\(^{13}\)C]acetate

Starting-material SMILES:

[13CH3]C(=O)[O-].[Na+]

The labelled methyl carbon becomes the second member of each acetate-derived pair. Therefore circle

\[ \boxed{P_2,\ P_6,\ P_8,\ P_{12},\ P_{14},\ P_{20},\ P_{26}} \]

for 7 separate circles.

The corresponding labelled rapamycin is:

C1(=O)[13C](=O)[C@@]2(O)[C@H](C)C[13CH2][C@H](O2)[13CH2][C@H](OC)/C(C)=C/[13CH]=C/[13CH]=C/[C@@H](C)C[C@@H](C)C(=O)[13C@H](OC)[C@H](O)/C(C)=C/[C@@H](C)C(=O)[13CH2][C@@H]([C@H](C)C[C@H]2C[C@@H](OC)[C@H](O)CC2)OC(=O)[C@@H]2CCCCN12

Under the building-block incorporation model in the question, the starter-derived carbons, pipecolate carbons and three O-methyl carbons receive none of these labels.

The answers were checked against the official answers published by the organisers.