IChO 2018 · Theory problem 3

Emerging electro-mobility

Contemporary means of transportation rely on burning fossil fuels, although the efficiency of real combustion engines is inherently limited and typically ranges between 20 and 40%.

3.1 Mark the factors that can make the efficiency of a heat engine higher:

  • ☐ Increasing the friction in the mechanical parts of the engine
  • ☐ Increasing the burning temperature of the fuel in the engine
  • ☐ Narrowing the working temperature interval of the engine
  • ☐ Increasing the working pressure of the gas

Fuel cells represent a way to improve the engine efficiency for future vehicles. The engine efficiency can be improved by using hydrogen-based fuel cells.

3.2 The standard enthalpy of formation of liquid water is \(\Delta_{\mathrm f}H^\circ(\ce{H2O},\mathrm l)=-285.84\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\), and the standard combustion enthalpy of isooctane is \(\Delta_{\mathrm c}H^\circ(\ce{C8H18},\mathrm l)=-5\,065.08\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\) (both at 323.15 K). Calculate the values of specific (per unit of mass) combustion enthalpy at 232.15 K of pure liquid isooctane and pure gaseous hydrogen.

3.3 Calculate the standard electromotive force (EMF) of a fuel cell using gaseous oxygen and hydrogen, both ideal gases at 100 kPa and 323.15 K, to produce liquid water.

Use the following entropy data for 323.15 K: \(S^\circ(\ce{H2O},\mathrm l)=70\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}\),

\(S^\circ(\ce{H2},\mathrm g)=131\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}\),

\(S^\circ(\ce{O2},\mathrm g)=205\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}\).

3.4 Determine the ideal thermodynamic efficiency \((\eta)\) of a fuel cell producing liquid water at 353.15 K. At this temperature, the enthalpy of formation of water is \(\Delta_{\mathrm f}H^\circ(\ce{H2O},\mathrm l)=-281.64\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\) and the corresponding reaction Gibbs energy change is \(\Delta_{\mathrm r}G^\circ=-225.85\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\).

3.5 A polymer membrane electrolyzer facility operates at the voltage of 2.00 V and is powered by a 10.0 MW wind turbine plant which was running at full power from 10 pm to 6 am. The electrolysis yielded 1 090 kg of pure hydrogen. Calculate the electrolysis yield defined as the mass of produced hydrogen divided by its theoretical produced mass.

3.6 Calculate the mass of hydrogen required to drive the distance between Prague and Bratislava (330 km) at the average speed of \(100\ \mathrm{km\,h^{-1}}\) with a car fitted with a 310 kW electric engine running on average at a 15% rate of its maximum power. Assume that the efficiency of the hydrogen cell producing electrical energy is 75%, the efficiency of the electric engine is 95%, and the Gibbs energy change for combustion of hydrogen fuel is \(\Delta_{\mathrm r}G=-226\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\).

The low efficiency of hydrogen production and the safety issues connected with its storage impede spreading the hydrogen-based transportation technology. Hydrazine (\(\ce{N2H4}\)) fuel cells might be a suitable alternative.

The following standard reduction potentials for aqueous hydrazine systems are available:

Figure 1

3.7 Fill in the following Latimer diagrams with the forms of hydrazine and ammonia prevailing at the given conditions and write the redox potential value for each arrow representing the electrochemical half-reaction. Record all the necessary calculations.

a) Acidic environment (pH = 0)

Figure 2

b) Basic environment (pH = 14)

Figure 3

Due to the toxicity, odour and its environmental impact, it is extremely unfavourable to produce ammonia in fuel cells.

3.8 Write down the net reaction for the decomposition of hydrazine under basic conditions to:

(i) ammonia and nitrogen,

(ii) nitrogen and hydrogen.

Calculate the corresponding equilibrium constants at \(T=298.15\ \mathrm K\).

Rechargeable lithium-based batteries are an alternative to fuel cells. Lithium-ion batteries commonly use graphite for one of the electrodes, in which lithium clusters intercalate in between the graphite sheets. The other electrode is made of lithium cobalt oxide, which can reversibly absorb lithium ions moving from one electrode to the other during the charge and discharge processes. The half-reactions relevant for the system can be formally written as:

Figure 4

3.9 Using the formalism given above, write down the overall chemical reaction occurring in the battery during the discharge process. Give the oxidation states of the cobalt atom.

3.10 Tick the boxes to get the correct statements which are valid for the discharge of the lithium-based battery described in 3.9:

\(\ce{Li(C)_n}\) electrode is ☐ cathode ☐ because lithium ions are reduced here.
☐ anode ☐ because lithium atoms are oxidized here.
\(\ce{LiCoO2}\) electrode is ☐ cathode ☐ because cobalt ions are reduced here.
☐ anode ☐ because cobalt ions are oxidized here.

3.11 Assume that a \(\ce{C6}\) unit, a \(\ce{CoO2}\) unit and \(\ce{Li}\) atom form the active battery mass required to transfer one electron between the electrodes. Using the corresponding standard EMF, calculate the theoretical specific reversible charge capacity (in \(\mathrm{mAh\,g^{-1}}\)) and the energy density (in \(\mathrm{kWh\,kg^{-1}}\)) of such a model lithium ion battery related to the whole active battery mass.

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 3.1: Tick increasing the burning temperature and increasing the working pressure of the gas, the latter through increased compression.
  • 3.2: Isooctane: \(\boxed{-44.34\ \mathrm{MJ\,kg^{-1}}}\); hydrogen: \(\boxed{-141.8\ \mathrm{MJ\,kg^{-1}}}\), using the supplied 323.15 K data. Exact values at the printed 232.15 K cannot be determined from the supplied information.
  • 3.3: \(\boxed{E^\circ=1.207\ \mathrm V\approx1.21\ \mathrm V}\).
  • 3.4: \(\boxed{\eta=80.2\%}\).
  • 3.5: Theoretical hydrogen mass \(=1.504\times10^3\ \mathrm{kg}\); \(\boxed{\text{electrolysis yield}=72.5\%}\).
  • 3.6: \(\boxed{m(\ce{H2})=6.92\ \mathrm{kg}}\).
  • 3.7(a): Middle box: hydrazinium, \(\ce{N2H5+}\), N[NH3+]; right box: ammonium, \(\ce{NH4+}\), [NH4+]. Successive arrow potentials: \(-0.23\ \mathrm V\), \(+1.28\ \mathrm V\); overall arrow: \(\boxed{+0.273\ \mathrm V}\).
  • 3.7(b): Middle box: hydrazine, \(\ce{N2H4}\), NN; right box: ammonia, \(\ce{NH3}\), N. Successive arrow potentials: \(-1.16\ \mathrm V\), \(+0.10\ \mathrm V\); overall arrow: \(\boxed{-0.740\ \mathrm V}\).
  • 3.8(i): \(\boxed{\ce{3N2H4(aq) -> 4NH3(aq) + N2(g)}}\), with \(\boxed{K\approx1.6\times10^{85}}\).
  • 3.8(ii): \(\boxed{\ce{N2H4(aq) -> N2(g) + 2H2(g)}}\), with \(\boxed{K\approx2.1\times10^{22}}\).
  • 3.9: \(\boxed{\ce{Li(C)_n + CoO2 -> (C)_n + LiCoO2}}\). Cobalt changes from \(+4\) in \(\ce{CoO2}\) to \(+3\) in \(\ce{LiCoO2}\).
  • 3.10: \(\ce{Li(C)_n}\): anode, because lithium atoms are oxidized in the stated formalism. \(\ce{LiCoO2}\): cathode, because cobalt ions are reduced.
  • 3.11: \(E^\circ=3.24\ \mathrm V\); theoretical specific charge capacity \(\boxed{157.7\ \mathrm{mAh\,g^{-1}}\approx158\ \mathrm{mAh\,g^{-1}}}\); energy density \(\boxed{0.511\ \mathrm{kWh\,kg^{-1}}}\).

Solution

I use \(F=96485.3\ \mathrm{C\,mol^{-1}}\), \(R=8.31446\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}\), and conventional atomic molar masses.

The molecular and ionic species used in the solution are identified below. These SMILES specify connectivity and charge; physical states and electron transfer are specified separately in the equations.

Species Name SMILES
\(\ce{C8H18}\) Isooctane, 2,2,4-trimethylpentane CC(C)(C)CC(C)C
\(\ce{H2}\) Hydrogen [H][H]
\(\ce{O2}\) Oxygen O=O
\(\ce{H2O}\) Water O
\(\ce{CO2}\) Carbon dioxide O=C=O
\(\ce{N2}\) Nitrogen N#N
\(\ce{N2H4}\) Hydrazine NN
\(\ce{N2H5+}\) Hydrazinium ion N[NH3+]
\(\ce{NH3}\) Ammonia N
\(\ce{NH4+}\) Ammonium ion [NH4+]
\(\ce{H+}\) Hydrogen ion, proton [H+]
\(\ce{OH-}\) Hydroxide ion [OH-]
\(\ce{Li+}\) Lithium ion [Li+]
\(\ce{Li}\) Lithium atom [Li]
\(\ce{Co^4+}\) Cobalt(IV) ion, formal oxidation-state representation [Co+4]
\(\ce{Co^3+}\) Cobalt(III) ion, formal oxidation-state representation [Co+3]

Graphite, \(\ce{(C)_n}\); lithiated graphite, \(\ce{Li(C)_n}\); cobalt(IV) oxide, \(\ce{CoO2}\); and lithium cobalt(III) oxide, \(\ce{LiCoO2}\), are extended solids. A finite molecular SMILES cannot describe their full lattices or lithium intercalation. The cobalt-ion representations above do not describe the solid-state coordination geometry or imply free cobalt ions in solution.

3.1 — Factors affecting heat-engine efficiency

For a reversible heat engine operating between hot and cold reservoirs,

\[ \eta_{\mathrm{Carnot}}=1-\frac{T_{\mathrm c}}{T_{\mathrm h}}, \]

where both temperatures are in kelvin.

Option Selection Reason
Increasing friction Do not tick Friction dissipates useful mechanical work.
Increasing the burning temperature Tick Raising the hot-side temperature can increase the attainable efficiency.
Narrowing the working temperature interval Do not tick Bringing the hot and cold temperatures closer reduces the attainable efficiency.
Increasing the working pressure Tick Increased compression raises working-gas pressure and can increase combustion-engine efficiency.

The compression effect can be illustrated by the ideal Otto-cycle relation

\[ \eta_{\mathrm{Otto}}=1-\frac{1}{r^{\gamma-1}}, \]

where \(r=V_{\max}/V_{\min}\) is the compression ratio and \(\gamma=C_p/C_v>1\). Increasing \(r\) increases efficiency. Thus the pressure option is selected, in the sense of a higher compression of the working gas.

3.2 — Specific combustion enthalpies

The printed temperatures conflict: the enthalpies are supplied at \(323.15\ \mathrm K\), but the requested temperature is \(232.15\ \mathrm K\). The numerical calculation below uses the supplied \(323.15\ \mathrm K\) data.

The balanced combustion equations, with liquid water as product, are

\[ \ce{C8H18(l) + 25/2 O2(g) -> 8CO2(g) + 9H2O(l)} \]

and

\[ \ce{H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) -> H2O(l)}. \]

The second reaction is also the formation reaction of one mole of liquid water from its elements. Therefore,

\[ \Delta_{\mathrm c}H^\circ(\ce{H2}) =\Delta_{\mathrm f}H^\circ(\ce{H2O},\mathrm l) =-285.84\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}. \]

Specific combustion enthalpy is the molar combustion enthalpy divided by molar mass.

For isooctane,

\[ M(\ce{C8H18}) =8(12.011)+18(1.008) =114.232\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}, \]

\[ h_{\mathrm c}^\circ =\frac{-5065.08}{114.232} =-44.3403\ \mathrm{kJ\,g^{-1}} =\boxed{-44.34\ \mathrm{MJ\,kg^{-1}}}. \]

For hydrogen,

\[ M(\ce{H2})=2.016\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}, \]

\[ h_{\mathrm c}^\circ =\frac{-285.84}{2.016} =-141.786\ \mathrm{kJ\,g^{-1}} =\boxed{-141.8\ \mathrm{MJ\,kg^{-1}}}. \]

The negative signs denote exothermic combustion; the corresponding released-energy magnitudes are positive.

An exact temperature correction would require Kirchhoff’s law,

\[ \Delta_{\mathrm c}H^\circ(232.15) = \Delta_{\mathrm c}H^\circ(323.15) + \int_{323.15}^{232.15}\Delta_{\mathrm r}C_p^\circ(T)\,dT, \]

together with any necessary phase-change corrections. Those data are not supplied.

3.3 — Standard hydrogen–oxygen fuel-cell EMF

For one mole of hydrogen, the net reaction is

\[ \ce{H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) -> H2O(l)}. \]

For example, it can be resolved into the balanced half-reactions

\[ \ce{H2(g) -> 2H+(aq) + 2e-}, \]

\[ \ce{1/2 O2(g) + 2H+(aq) + 2e- -> H2O(l)}. \]

Thus \(n=2\) moles of electrons are transferred per mole of hydrogen.

The reaction entropy is

\[ \begin{aligned} \Delta_{\mathrm r}S^\circ &=S^\circ(\ce{H2O},\mathrm l) -S^\circ(\ce{H2},\mathrm g) -\frac12S^\circ(\ce{O2},\mathrm g)\\ &=70-131-\frac{205}{2}\\ &=-163.5\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}. \end{aligned} \]

Consequently,

\[ \begin{aligned} \Delta_{\mathrm r}G^\circ &=\Delta_{\mathrm r}H^\circ-T\Delta_{\mathrm r}S^\circ\\ &=-285.84-(323.15)(-0.1635)\\ &=-233.005\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}. \end{aligned} \]

Using \(\Delta_{\mathrm r}G^\circ=-nFE^\circ\),

\[ E^\circ =\frac{233005\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}}} {2(96485.3\ \mathrm{C\,mol^{-1}})} =\boxed{1.207\ \mathrm V}. \]

Each gas is at the standard pressure of \(100\ \mathrm{kPa}\), and pure liquid water has unit activity, so no Nernst correction is required.

3.4 — Ideal thermodynamic fuel-cell efficiency

The maximum electrical work is \(-\Delta_{\mathrm r}G^\circ\), while the combustion-energy input on the stated liquid-water basis is \(-\Delta_{\mathrm r}H^\circ\). Therefore,

\[ \eta =\frac{-\Delta_{\mathrm r}G^\circ}{-\Delta_{\mathrm r}H^\circ} =\frac{225.85}{281.64} =0.80191. \]

Hence,

\[ \boxed{\eta=80.2\%}. \]

3.5 — Electrolysis yield

The net electrolysis reaction is

\[ \ce{2H2O(l) -> 2H2(g) + O2(g)}. \]

Producing one mole of hydrogen requires two moles of electrons.

The operating time is

\[ t=8.00\ \mathrm h=28800\ \mathrm s. \]

The electrical energy supplied is

\[ W_{\mathrm{el}}=Pt =(10.0\times10^6\ \mathrm W)(28800\ \mathrm s) =2.88\times10^{11}\ \mathrm J. \]

Since \(W_{\mathrm{el}}=UQ\),

\[ Q=\frac{W_{\mathrm{el}}}{U} =\frac{2.88\times10^{11}}{2.00} =1.44\times10^{11}\ \mathrm C. \]

The theoretical hydrogen amount is

\[ n_{\mathrm{theor}}(\ce{H2}) =\frac{Q}{2F} =\frac{1.44\times10^{11}}{2(96485.3)} =7.4623\times10^5\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

Thus,

\[ m_{\mathrm{theor}} =(7.4623\times10^5)(2.016\times10^{-3}) =1504.4\ \mathrm{kg}. \]

The required mass yield is

\[ Y=\frac{m_{\mathrm{actual}}}{m_{\mathrm{theor}}} =\frac{1090}{1504.4} =0.72454, \]

or

\[ \boxed{Y=72.5\%}. \]

3.6 — Hydrogen needed for the journey

The travel time is

\[ t=\frac{330\ \mathrm{km}}{100\ \mathrm{km\,h^{-1}}} =3.30\ \mathrm h=11880\ \mathrm s. \]

The average mechanical output power is

\[ P_{\mathrm{mech}}=0.15(310)=46.5\ \mathrm{kW}. \]

The required mechanical work is therefore

\[ W_{\mathrm{mech}} =(46.5\ \mathrm{kJ\,s^{-1}})(11880\ \mathrm s) =552420\ \mathrm{kJ}. \]

Using the supplied Gibbs energy as the reversible electrical energy per mole, the useful mechanical energy obtained per mole of hydrogen is

\[ w_{\mathrm{mech,m}} =\eta_{\mathrm{cell}}\eta_{\mathrm{motor}} \left|\Delta_{\mathrm r}G\right| =(0.75)(0.95)(226) =161.025\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}. \]

Hence,

\[ n(\ce{H2}) =\frac{552420}{161.025} =3430.65\ \mathrm{mol}, \]

\[ m(\ce{H2}) =(3430.65)(2.016\times10^{-3}) =\boxed{6.92\ \mathrm{kg}}. \]

The Gibbs-energy value already represents reversible electrical work; the thermodynamic factor from 3.4 is not applied again.

3.7 — Latimer diagrams

When consecutive reduction half-reactions are added, their Gibbs energies add. Since

\[ \Delta G_i^\circ=-n_iFE_i^\circ, \]

the combined potential is

\[ E_{\mathrm{overall}}^\circ =\frac{n_1E_1^\circ+n_2E_2^\circ}{n_1+n_2}. \]

The potentials must therefore be weighted by electron numbers.

(a) Acidic environment, pH = 0

The prevailing forms represented by the supplied acidic half-reactions are hydrazinium, \(\ce{N2H5+}\), and ammonium, \(\ce{NH4+}\). Their protonated forms are favoured in strongly acidic solution.

The half-reactions are

\[ \ce{N2(g) + 5H+(aq) + 4e- -> N2H5+(aq)}, \qquad E_1^\circ=-0.23\ \mathrm V, \]

\[ \ce{N2H5+(aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2e- -> 2NH4+(aq)}, \qquad E_2^\circ=+1.28\ \mathrm V. \]

Adding gives

\[ \ce{N2(g) + 8H+(aq) + 6e- -> 2NH4+(aq)}. \]

Thus,

\[ E_{\mathrm{overall}}^\circ =\frac{4(-0.23)+2(+1.28)}{6} =\boxed{+0.273\ \mathrm V}. \]

Fill the diagram precisely as follows:

  • Left box: nitrogen, \(\ce{N2}\), already printed.
  • Middle box: \(\ce{N2H5+}\).
  • Right box: \(\ce{NH4+}\).
  • First horizontal arrow: \(-0.23\ \mathrm V\).
  • Second horizontal arrow: \(+1.28\ \mathrm V\).
  • Lower bypass arrow from the left box to the right box: \(+0.273\ \mathrm V\).

(b) Basic environment, pH = 14

Under strongly basic conditions, the corresponding prevailing forms are neutral hydrazine, \(\ce{N2H4}\), and ammonia, \(\ce{NH3}\).

The half-reactions are

\[ \ce{N2(g) + 4H2O(l) + 4e- -> N2H4(aq) + 4OH-(aq)}, \qquad E_1^\circ=-1.16\ \mathrm V, \]

\[ \ce{N2H4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2e- -> 2NH3(aq) + 2OH-(aq)}, \qquad E_2^\circ=+0.10\ \mathrm V. \]

Adding gives

\[ \ce{N2(g) + 6H2O(l) + 6e- -> 2NH3(aq) + 6OH-(aq)}. \]

Therefore,

\[ E_{\mathrm{overall}}^\circ =\frac{4(-1.16)+2(+0.10)}{6} =\boxed{-0.740\ \mathrm V}. \]

Fill the diagram as follows:

  • Left box: nitrogen, \(\ce{N2}\), already printed.
  • Middle box: \(\ce{N2H4}\).
  • Right box: \(\ce{NH3}\).
  • First horizontal arrow: \(-1.16\ \mathrm V\).
  • Second horizontal arrow: \(+0.10\ \mathrm V\).
  • Lower bypass arrow: \(-0.740\ \mathrm V\).

3.8 — Hydrazine decomposition and equilibrium constants

For a reaction assembled from oxidation and reduction half-reactions,

\[ E_{\mathrm{cell}}^\circ =E_{\mathrm{cathode,red}}^\circ-E_{\mathrm{anode,red}}^\circ. \]

Combining

\[ \Delta_{\mathrm r}G^\circ=-nFE_{\mathrm{cell}}^\circ \]

with

\[ \Delta_{\mathrm r}G^\circ=-RT\ln K \]

gives

\[ \boxed{\ln K=\frac{nFE_{\mathrm{cell}}^\circ}{RT}}. \]

The value of \(n\), and consequently \(K\), refers to the balanced reaction exactly as written.

(i) Decomposition to ammonia and nitrogen

Reverse the nitrogen-to-hydrazine reduction half-reaction:

\[ \ce{N2H4(aq) + 4OH-(aq) -> N2(g) + 4H2O(l) + 4e-}. \]

Multiply the hydrazine-to-ammonia reduction half-reaction by two:

\[ \ce{2N2H4(aq) + 4H2O(l) + 4e- -> 4NH3(aq) + 4OH-(aq)}. \]

After cancellation,

\[ \boxed{\ce{3N2H4(aq) -> 4NH3(aq) + N2(g)}}. \]

This is disproportionation: some hydrazine nitrogen is oxidized from oxidation state \(-2\) to \(0\), while the remainder is reduced from \(-2\) to \(-3\).

For the integer-balanced reaction above, \(n=4\), and

\[ E_{\mathrm{cell}}^\circ =0.10-(-1.16) =1.26\ \mathrm V. \]

At \(298.15\ \mathrm K\),

\[ \ln K =\frac{4(96485.3)(1.26)} {(8.31446)(298.15)} =196.166. \]

Equivalently,

\[ \log_{10}K=85.194, \]

so

\[ \boxed{K\approx1.6\times10^{85}}. \]

For ideal gases, its dimensionless activity expression is

\[ K= \frac{a_{\ce{NH3}}^4(p_{\ce{N2}}/p^\circ)} {a_{\ce{N2H4}}^3}. \]

(ii) Decomposition to nitrogen and hydrogen

Use the same hydrazine oxidation half-reaction:

\[ \ce{N2H4(aq) + 4OH-(aq) -> N2(g) + 4H2O(l) + 4e-}. \]

Multiply the supplied water-to-hydrogen reduction half-reaction by two:

\[ \ce{4H2O(l) + 4e- -> 2H2(g) + 4OH-(aq)}. \]

The net reaction is

\[ \boxed{\ce{N2H4(aq) -> N2(g) + 2H2(g)}}. \]

Again \(n=4\), while

\[ E_{\mathrm{cell}}^\circ =-0.83-(-1.16) =0.33\ \mathrm V. \]

Therefore,

\[ \ln K =\frac{4(96485.3)(0.33)} {(8.31446)(298.15)} =51.3767, \]

\[ \log_{10}K=22.3126, \]

and

\[ \boxed{K\approx2.1\times10^{22}}. \]

The corresponding dimensionless activity expression is

\[ K= \frac{(p_{\ce{N2}}/p^\circ)(p_{\ce{H2}}/p^\circ)^2} {a_{\ce{N2H4}}}. \]

3.9 — Battery discharge reaction and cobalt oxidation states

The supplied reduction potentials are

\[ \ce{(C)_n + Li+ + e- -> Li(C)_n}, \qquad E^\circ=-3.05\ \mathrm V, \]

\[ \ce{CoO2 + Li+ + e- -> LiCoO2}, \qquad E^\circ=+0.19\ \mathrm V. \]

During spontaneous discharge, the half-reaction with the higher reduction potential proceeds as reduction. The graphite half-reaction is reversed.

Oxidation:

\[ \ce{Li(C)_n -> (C)_n + Li+ + e-}. \]

Reduction:

\[ \ce{CoO2 + Li+ + e- -> LiCoO2}. \]

Adding and cancelling the lithium ion and electron gives

\[ \boxed{\ce{Li(C)_n + CoO2 -> (C)_n + LiCoO2}}. \]

For cobalt in \(\ce{CoO2}\),

\[ x+2(-2)=0 \quad\Longrightarrow\quad x=+4. \]

For cobalt in \(\ce{LiCoO2}\),

\[ (+1)+x+2(-2)=0 \quad\Longrightarrow\quad x=+3. \]

Thus cobalt is reduced from cobalt(IV) to cobalt(III) during discharge.

3.10 — Electrode identification

Oxidation occurs at the anode, and reduction occurs at the cathode.

For the \(\ce{Li(C)_n}\) electrode, tick:

  • anode;
  • because lithium atoms are oxidized here.

These selections follow the problem’s formal representation

\[ \ce{Li(C)_n -> (C)_n + Li+ + e-}. \]

For the \(\ce{LiCoO2}\) electrode, tick:

  • cathode;
  • because cobalt ions are reduced here.

Cobalt changes from \(+4\) to \(+3\) as lithium is inserted into the cobalt-oxide electrode. Electrons flow through the external circuit from the lithiated-graphite electrode to the cobalt-oxide electrode.

3.11 — Specific charge capacity and energy density

The standard discharge EMF is

\[ E^\circ =E_{\mathrm{cathode,red}}^\circ-E_{\mathrm{anode,red}}^\circ =0.19-(-3.05) =\boxed{3.24\ \mathrm V}. \]

The active mass associated with transferring one mole of electrons contains one mole each of \(\ce{C6}\), \(\ce{CoO2}\), and lithium atoms:

\[ \begin{aligned} M_{\mathrm{active}} &=6(12.011)+58.933+2(15.999)+6.94\\ &=169.937\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}. \end{aligned} \]

The lithium mass is counted once, and both electrodes’ active materials are included.

One mole of electrons carries charge \(F\). Because

\[ 1\ \mathrm{mAh}=3.6\ \mathrm C, \]

the theoretical specific reversible charge capacity is

\[ \begin{aligned} q_{\mathrm{sp}} &=\frac{F}{M_{\mathrm{active}}} \frac{1\ \mathrm{mAh}}{3.6\ \mathrm C}\\ &=\frac{96485.3}{3.6(169.937)}\\ &=\boxed{157.7\ \mathrm{mAh\,g^{-1}}}. \end{aligned} \]

Numerically, this is also \(157.7\ \mathrm{Ah\,kg^{-1}}\). Thus the specific reversible energy is

\[ \begin{aligned} w_{\mathrm{sp}} &=E^\circ q_{\mathrm{sp}}\\ &=(3.24\ \mathrm V)(157.7\ \mathrm{Ah\,kg^{-1}})\\ &=511.0\ \mathrm{Wh\,kg^{-1}}\\ &=\boxed{0.511\ \mathrm{kWh\,kg^{-1}}}. \end{aligned} \]

The solution was checked against the official solution.