IChO 2016 · Theory problem 6

Synthesis of galantamine

Although there is currently no known cure for Alzheimer’s disease, there are medications available to manage the neurodegenerative disorder. Among these are acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, of which galantamine 1 is an example. This molecule can be isolated from the Caucasian snowdrop, a plant native to Georgia; however, the large amounts needed for therapy require a synthetic route. Shown below is the route used to prepare galantamine industrially.

Figure 1

Notes about the synthesis:

  • \(\ce{^1H}\) NMR of A indicates 2 aromatic protons in a para arrangement.
  • C is labile in aqueous conditions, so it is not isolated, but rather reacted immediately with \(\ce{NaBH4}\) to convert it to D.

6.1.1 Suggest structures for A, B, C, D, F, and G. None of the reactions except for the final transformation with L-selectride are stereoselective. Therefore, stereochemistry does not need to be indicated in your answers.

6.1.2 Give the formula for a possible reagent, X, to convert compound D to E.

The optical rotation of the material obtained by resolution was \(-400^\circ\ \mathrm{cm^2\,g^{-1}}\), while that of the enantiomerically pure compound is \(-415^\circ\ \mathrm{cm^2\,g^{-1}}\) when measured under the same conditions. You may assume that the only optical impurity is the other enantiomer.

One way of describing optical purity is enantiomeric excess (\(ee\)). It is defined as the difference in the percentages of the enantiomers in a mixture. For example in a mixture of 70% \(R\) and 30% \(S\), the \(ee\) is 40%.

6.2.1 What is the enantiomeric excess of the resolved compound as prepared by the industrial route?

L-selectride is a commercial reagent that performs the final reaction stereoselectively.

6.2.2 Assign the labelled stereocentres \((\alpha,\beta,\gamma)\) in (−)-1 as \(R\) or \(S\).

Figure 2

6.2.3 Give the formula for a reagent that carries out the same reaction as L-selectride, converting H to 1. You need not worry about stereoselectivity.

An alternative route to galantamine occurs with the seven-membered ring being the last ring to form.

Figure 3

6.3.1 Give the formula for compound Y to carry out the first step of the route.

6.3.2 Suggest structures for J and K.

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

Names for the unnamed polycyclic intermediates below are descriptive; their SMILES specify the complete structures.

  • 6.1.1
Compound Identification SMILES
A 2-Bromo-4,5-dimethoxybenzaldehyde COc1cc(Br)c(C=O)cc1OC
B 2-Bromo-5-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde COc1cc(Br)c(C=O)cc1O
C N-(2-Bromo-5-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzylidene)-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethan-1-amine; the Schiff base of B and tyramine COc1cc(Br)c(C=NCCc2ccc(O)cc2)cc1O
D N-(2-Bromo-5-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzyl)-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethan-1-amine COc1cc(Br)c(CNCCc2ccc(O)cc2)cc1O
F Propane-1,2-diol ketal of the depicted brominated N-formyl ketone COc1cc(Br)c2CN(C=O)CCC34C=CC5(OCC(C)O5)CC3Oc1c24
G Narwedine propane-1,2-diol ketal: the debrominated, N-methyl analogue of F COc1ccc2CN(C)CCC34C=CC5(OCC(C)O5)CC3Oc1c24
  • 6.1.2 A suitable X is ethyl formate, \(\ce{HCOOC2H5}\), CCOC=O, with heating.

  • 6.2.1 \[ \boxed{ee=96.4\%} \] in favour of the negatively rotating enantiomer.

  • 6.2.2 \[ \boxed{\alpha=S,\qquad \beta=R,\qquad \gamma=S.} \] (−)-Galantamine, with these configurations:
    COc1ccc2CN(C)CC[C@@]34C=C[C@H](O)C[C@@H]3Oc1c24

  • 6.2.3 Sodium borohydride, \(\ce{NaBH4}\), [Na+].[BH4-].

  • 6.3.1 Y is methylamine, \(\ce{CH3NH2}\), CN.

  • 6.3.2

J — tricyclic amino-imine, \(\ce{C17H22N2O3}\): the aromatic substituent is methylaminomethyl, and the substituent on \(\gamma\) is 2-iminoethyl.
COc1ccc(CNC)c2c1O[C@H]1C[C@@H](O)C=C[C@]12CC=N

K — tricyclic amino-aldehyde, \(\ce{C17H21NO4}\): the aromatic substituent remains methylaminomethyl, and the substituent on \(\gamma\) is 2-oxoethyl.
COc1ccc(CNC)c2c1O[C@H]1C[C@@H](O)C=C[C@]12CC=O

Solution

Hydride reductions below are written as balanced net equations for the organic transformation, including protonation during work-up. A hydride equivalent is represented by \(\ce{H^-}\), [H-], and a proton by \(\ce{H+}\), [H+].

6.1.1 — Identification of A, B, C, D, F, and G

A: aromatic bromination. The starting compound is veratraldehyde, or 3,4-dimethoxybenzaldehyde, COc1ccc(C=O)cc1OC.

Numbering the starting ring with the aldehyde-bearing carbon as position 1 and the methoxy groups at positions 3 and 4, its aromatic hydrogens occupy positions 2, 5, and 6. The hydrogens at positions 2 and 5 are para to one another. Therefore, bromination must replace the hydrogen at position 6.

Renumbering the product to give the lowest substituent locants gives 2-bromo-4,5-dimethoxybenzaldehyde, A. Its remaining aromatic hydrogens are at positions 3 and 6, again a para pair.

Bromine, BrBr, gives hydrogen bromide, Br, as the substitution by-product:

\[ \ce{C9H10O3 + Br2 -> C9H9BrO3 + HBr}. \]

B: selective O-demethylation. Sulfuric acid, \(\ce{H2SO4}\), OS(=O)(=O)O, cleaves one aryl methyl ether. The structure of E identifies which one: relative to the benzyl substituent, its phenolic hydroxyl is meta and its remaining methoxy group is para.

Thus B has hydroxyl at position 5 and methoxy at position 4. The net equation after aqueous work-up is

\[ \ce{C9H9BrO3 + H2O ->[H2SO4] C8H7BrO3 + CH3OH}, \]

where water is O and methanol is CO.

C: imine formation. The amine reagent is tyramine, 2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethan-1-amine, NCCc1ccc(O)cc1.

Its primary amino group condenses with the aldehyde of B, eliminating water and forming the Schiff base C:

\[ \ce{C8H7BrO3 + C8H11NO -> C16H16BrNO3 + H2O}. \]

The new linkage is an imine between the former aldehyde carbon and the tyramine nitrogen. Imine formation is reversible in water, explaining why C is not isolated.

D: reduction of the imine. Sodium borohydride delivers hydride to the imine carbon; protonation gives the secondary amine D:

\[ \ce{C16H16BrNO3 + H^- + H+ -> C16H18BrNO3}. \]

The aldehyde-derived carbon therefore becomes a benzyl methylene bonded to nitrogen.

F: protection of the cyclic ketone. The supplied oxidative cyclization of E produces the brominated N-formyl tetracyclic ketone:

COc1cc(Br)c2CN(C=O)CCC34C=CC(=O)CC3Oc1c24

Its formula is \(\ce{C17H16BrNO4}\). The organic oxidation half-equation is

\[ \ce{C17H18BrNO4 -> C17H16BrNO4 + 2H+ + 2e^-}. \]

The diol shown is propane-1,2-diol, CC(O)CO. Under acid catalysis, its two hydroxyl groups react with the cyclic ketone to form F:

\[ \ce{C17H16BrNO4 + C3H8O2 <=>[H^+] C20H22BrNO5 + H2O}. \]

To draw F, retain the entire depicted skeleton, including bromine and the N-formyl group, and replace the ketone with a cyclic ketal. The former carbonyl carbon bonds to both diol oxygens, forming a five-membered 4-methyl-1,3-dioxolane ring. This ring shares only the former carbonyl carbon with the six-membered ring: it is a spiro ketal.

G: amide reduction and debromination. Excess lithium aluminium hydride, \(\ce{LiAlH4}\), [Li+].[AlH4-], at the stated temperature effects two changes:

  1. The N-formyl group becomes N-methyl; the formyl carbon is retained.
  2. The aryl bromine is replaced by hydrogen.

The ketal protects the cyclic ketone during these reductions. Thus G has the same ketal as F, but an N-methyl group and no bromine.

The balanced net transformation, with bromide [Br-] as the halogen-containing product, is

\[ \ce{C20H22BrNO5 + 3H^- + 2H+ -> C20H25NO4 + Br^- + H2O}. \]

The subsequent acid treatment hydrolyses the ketal, regenerating narwedine, the unresolved ketone preceding H:

COc1ccc2CN(C)CCC34C=CC(=O)CC3Oc1c24

\[ \ce{C20H25NO4 + H2O ->[H^+] C17H19NO3 + C3H8O2}. \]

This also confirms that G must already be debrominated and N-methylated.

6.1.2 — Reagent X

Comparing D and E, the secondary amine has acquired a formyl group.

E is N-(2-bromo-5-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzyl)-N-[2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]formamide:

COc1cc(Br)c(CN(C=O)CCc2ccc(O)cc2)cc1O

A suitable reagent is ethyl formate, \(\ce{HCOOC2H5}\), CCOC=O. Heating with the secondary amine gives the formamide by nucleophilic acyl substitution, releasing ethanol, CCO:

\[ \ce{C16H18BrNO3 + HCOOC2H5 -> C17H18BrNO4 + C2H5OH}. \]

6.2.1 — Enantiomeric excess

Enantiomers have equal and opposite specific rotations under identical conditions. If \(x\) is the mole fraction of the negatively rotating enantiomer,

\[ [\alpha]_{\mathrm{mix}} =x[\alpha]_{(-)}+(1-x)[\alpha]_{(+)} =(2x-1)[\alpha]_{(-)}. \]

Hence

\[ ee =\left|\frac{[\alpha]_{\mathrm{mix}}} {[\alpha]_{\mathrm{pure}}}\right|\times100\% =\frac{400^\circ\ \mathrm{cm^2\,g^{-1}}} {415^\circ\ \mathrm{cm^2\,g^{-1}}}\times100\% =\boxed{96.4\%}. \]

The corresponding enantiomer proportions are

\[ x_{(-)}=\frac{1+400/415}{2}=0.98193, \qquad x_{(+)}=\frac{1-400/415}{2}=0.01807. \]

Thus the material contains approximately 98.2% negatively rotating enantiomer and 1.8% positively rotating enantiomer.

6.2.2 — Absolute configurations

Apply the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog rules, including duplicate atoms when comparing double bonds and aromatic bonds.

Centre Priorities, highest to lowest Configuration
\(\alpha\) Ether oxygen; carbon \(\gamma\); methylene leading towards \(\beta\); hydrogen \(S\)
\(\beta\) Hydroxyl oxygen; alkenyl carbon; saturated methylene leading towards \(\alpha\); hydrogen \(R\)
\(\gamma\) Oxygen-bearing carbon \(\alpha\); aromatic carbon; alkenyl carbon; methylene leading towards nitrogen \(S\)

At \(\alpha\), the carbon \(\gamma\) outranks the methylene because it is attached to three carbons, whereas the methylene is attached to one carbon and two hydrogens. With the dashed hydrogen directed away, priorities \(1\to2\to3\) run anticlockwise: \(S\).

At \(\beta\), the alkenyl path outranks the saturated methylene path because of the double-bond duplicate-atom rule. With hydrogen away, \(1\to2\to3\) runs clockwise: \(R\).

At \(\gamma\), the oxygen-bearing path has first priority. The aromatic path outranks the alkenyl path, which outranks the saturated side chain. The dashed side chain is the lowest-priority substituent and points away; \(1\to2\to3\) runs anticlockwise: \(S\).

Therefore,

\[ \boxed{(\alpha,\beta,\gamma)=(S,R,S)}. \]

6.2.3 — Alternative reducing reagent

Sodium borohydride, \(\ce{NaBH4}\), [Na+].[BH4-], reduces the ketone to an allylic alcohol.

The resolved ketone H, (−)-narwedine, is

COc1ccc2CN(C)CC[C@@]34C=CC(=O)C[C@@H]3Oc1c24

The net reduction is

\[ \ce{C17H19NO3 + H^- + H+ -> C17H21NO3}. \]

The carbonyl oxygen becomes the alcohol oxygen, while the carbon–carbon double bond remains. Without stereoselective control, reduction need not give exclusively the required configuration at \(\beta\), as allowed by the question.

6.3.1 — Identification of Y

The first step converts an aromatic aldehyde into an N-methyl imine. Therefore Y is methylamine, \(\ce{CH3NH2}\), CN.

The starting tricyclic cyano aldehyde is

COc1ccc(C=O)c2c1O[C@H]1C[C@@H](O)C=C[C@]12CC#N

The resulting tricyclic N-methyl imine is

COc1ccc(C=NC)c2c1O[C@H]1C[C@@H](O)C=C[C@]12CC#N

Its formation is a condensation:

\[ \ce{C16H15NO4 + CH3NH2 -> C17H18N2O3 + H2O}. \]

The nitrile and the existing three stereocentres remain unchanged. Imine \(E/Z\) geometry is not specified.

6.3.2 — Identification of J and K

Formation of J. Diisobutylaluminium hydride, DIBAL-H, has the monomeric-unit connectivity CC(C)C[AlH]CC(C)C, corresponding to the reagent drawing.

The organic structures and formulas require two reductions:

  • The preformed N-methyl imine becomes the secondary methylaminomethyl group.
  • The nitrile becomes a terminal primary imine.

Each transformation adds two hydrogen atoms to the neutral organic product. Thus

\[ \ce{C17H18N2O3 + 2H^- + 2H+ -> C17H22N2O3}. \]

Consequently, J has an aromatic methylaminomethyl substituent and a bridgehead 2-iminoethyl substituent:

COc1ccc(CNC)c2c1O[C@H]1C[C@@H](O)C=C[C@]12CC=N

This represents the neutral organic imine specified by the question’s formula; aluminium coordination is omitted.

Formation of K. Acidic hydrolysis converts the terminal imine into an aldehyde. K retains all 17 carbon atoms but contains only one nitrogen. This identifies the nitrogen lost during hydrolysis as the terminal imine nitrogen; the N-methyl group remains in the molecule.

Writing K in the neutral form used in the question, the balanced hydrolysis with hydronium, [OH3+], gives ammonium, [NH4+]:

\[ \ce{C17H22N2O3 + H3O+ -> C17H21NO4 + NH4+}. \]

Thus K is

COc1ccc(CNC)c2c1O[C@H]1C[C@@H](O)C=C[C@]12CC=O

To draw it, retain the stereochemistry and tricyclic core shown in the starting material. Place a methylaminomethyl group at the original aromatic aldehyde position and replace the original cyanomethyl side chain with a 2-oxoethyl side chain.

Closure to galantamine. The secondary amine of K attacks its aldehyde intramolecularly. Formation of a seven-membered cyclic iminium ion, followed by reduction with sodium cyanoborohydride, \(\ce{NaCNBH3}\), [Na+].[BH3-]C#N, gives galantamine.

The net reductive amination is

\[ \ce{C17H21NO4 + H^- + H+ -> C17H21NO3 + H2O}. \]

The aldehyde carbon becomes the methylene bonded to nitrogen in the completed seven-membered ring. The configurations at \(\alpha\), \(\beta\), and \(\gamma\) are retained.

The answers were checked against the official answers published by the organisers.