IChO 2015 · Theory problem 2

Coupling of chemical reactions

Figure 1

I.Prigogine (left)

Figure 2

N. Shilov

Figure 3

W. Ostwald

When in the system one reaction allows another one to proceed they say that these two reactions are coupled. Ilya Prigogine, Nobel prize winner in chemistry (1977) in his books widely used the concept of “coupled reactions”. Coupling of reactions is an essential feature of living systems, including human body.

How one reaction makes another one to occur? In this problem we are going to discuss several possible mechanisms of coupling.

(I) “Chemical coupling”

On Chemical coupling” was the title of the dissertation defended by Russian chemist N.Shilov in 1905. N. Shilov was the graduate student of famous professor W. Ostwald. Dr. Shilov described the following set of reactions.

The substance \(A\) does not react with \(Ac\). In the presence of the third reagent (called inductor), \(In\), however, the reaction of \(A\) with \(Ac\) takes place:

Figure 4
Figure 5

\(In\) is not a catalyst! Its concentration decreases in the course of the reactions.

According to the scheme proposed by Shilov, \(Ac\) reacts not with \(A\) itself, but with the intermediate product \(R\) of the reaction of \(A\) with \(In\). There is another, competing reaction of \(R\) that forms \(P_2\).

Figure 6

\(\alpha\) and \(\beta\) are stoichiometric coefficients. Other stoichiometric coefficients and reaction order with respect to all reactants in all three reactions are unity.

In the Shilov’s experiments the ratio of the consumed amounts of \(Ac\) and \(In\), \(I=\Delta n_{Ac}/\Delta n_{In}\) increased up to the constant value with the increasing initial concentration \([Ac]_0\) at \([In]_0=\text{const}\).

2.1 What was this limiting constant value of \(I\) at \([Ac]_0\to\infty,\ [In]_0=\text{const}\)?

2.2 Derive an expression for \(I\) using the steady-state approximation if necessary. Plot the graph of \(I\) vs \([In]_0\) at \([Ac]_0=\text{const}\). Assume that \(In\) was completely consumed and \(Ac\) was in excess..

If Shilov’s mechanism is not valid and \(In\) is a conventional catalyst of the reaction (2) then \(In\) reacts simultaneously with \(A\) and its concentration decreases. The reaction scheme in this case is as follows:

Figure 7

2.3 What is the limiting value of \(I\) for the reaction scheme (4) at \([Ac]_0\to\infty,\ [In]_0=\text{const}\)?

(II) “Kinetic coupling”

The standard Gibbs energy of the gas-phase reaction

Figure 8

is positive, \(\Delta G^\circ(5)=66\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\) at \(T=600\ \mathrm K\).

2.4 What is the ratio of the rates of forward and reverse reactions, \(r_5/r_{-5}\), at this temperature, standard pressures of \(\ce{H2}\) and \(\ce{HBr}\) and equal pressures of \(\ce{H}\) and \(\ce{Br}\)?

(If you could not answer this question, for further calculations use reference value \(r_5/r_{-5}=3.14\times10^{-7}\).)

Reaction (5) proceeds in the forward direction due to the reaction (6) which simultaneously occurs in the system:

Figure 9

\(k_5,\ k_{-5},\ k_6\) are rate constants of forward and reverse reaction (5) and forward reaction (6), respectively.

This is the kinetic coupling of two reactions.

Let pressures of neutral molecules keep standard values \(p(\ce{H2})=p(\ce{Br2})=p(\ce{HBr})=1\ \mathrm{bar}\), and pressures of radicals \(p(\ce{H}),\ p(\ce{Br})\) reach steady-state values. Rate constant \(k_6\) is 10 times larger than \(k_{-5}\).

2.5 Calculate \(\Delta G(5)\) and \(r_5/r_{-5}\) under such conditions.

(III) ”Second law of thermodynamics restricts coupling”

According to the Second Law of thermodynamics, two simultaneously occurring chemical reactions should decrease the system’s Gibbs energy \(G_{\mathrm{Syst}}\),

\[ \frac{\Delta G_{\mathrm{syst}}}{\Delta t}<0 \]

One of these reactions may have positive Gibbs energy and still proceed in the forward direction due to the coupling with the second reaction. This second reaction must have negative Gibbs energy and the requirements of the Second law must be fulfilled! Consider the example.

The synthesis of urea under specific conditions

Figure 10

\((\Delta G(7)=46.0\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}})\)

is supposed to be coupled with the complete oxidation of glucose (under the same conditions)

Figure 11

\(\Delta G(8)=-481.2\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}},\)

\(r(8)=6.0\times10^{-8}\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}\,min^{-1}}.\)

Both reactions are presented schematically. No other reactions are considered.

2.6 What is the maximum rate of the reaction (7) permitted by the Second Law if this reaction is coupled to reaction (8)?

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 2.1: \(\displaystyle I_{\mathrm{lim}}=\frac1\beta.\)
  • 2.2: With excess \(Ac\), so that \([Ac]\approx[Ac]_0\), \[ \boxed{I\approx\frac{k(3c)[Ac]_0}{\beta\bigl(k(3b)+k(3c)[Ac]_0\bigr)}.} \] The graph against \([In]_0\) is horizontal within this approximation.
  • 2.3: \(\displaystyle I\to\infty\) in the intended first-order catalytic model.
  • 2.4: \(\displaystyle \frac{r_5}{r_{-5}}=1.8\times10^{-6}.\)
  • 2.5: \(\displaystyle \frac{r_5}{r_{-5}}=11,\qquad \Delta G(5)=-12.0\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}.\)
  • 2.6: The upper limiting rate is \[ \boxed{r_{7,\mathrm{lim}}=6.3\times10^{-7}\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}\,min^{-1}}.} \] Strict decrease of Gibbs energy requires a rate below the unrounded bound.

Solution

The symbols \(A,Ac,In,R,P_1,P_2\) represent unspecified substances. In particular, \(Ac\) and \(In\) are labels here, not the elements actinium and indium. Their structures and SMILES cannot be assigned from the information provided.

2.1

Each occurrence of reaction (3a) consumes \(\beta\) units of \(In\) and produces one unit of the intermediate \(R\). That intermediate either forms \(P_2\), consuming no \(Ac\), or forms \(P_1\), consuming one unit of \(Ac\).

Consequently, after all the intermediate has reacted, \[ \Delta n_{In}=\beta(n_{P_1}+n_{P_2}), \qquad \Delta n_{Ac}=n_{P_1}. \] Thus \[ I=\frac1\beta\frac{n_{P_1}}{n_{P_1}+n_{P_2}}\leq\frac1\beta. \]

As \([Ac]_0\to\infty\), capture of \(R\) by \(Ac\) overwhelmingly outcompetes formation of \(P_2\). Therefore, \[ \boxed{I_{\mathrm{lim}}=\frac1\beta.} \]

2.2

Write \[ k_a=k(3a),\qquad k_b=k(3b),\qquad k_c=k(3c). \] Because the stated reaction orders are unity, the rates of the three steps are \[ v_a=k_a[A][In],\qquad v_b=k_b[R],\qquad v_c=k_c[R][Ac]. \] The stoichiometric coefficients \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\) do not become exponents in these rate laws.

The steady-state approximation for the intermediate gives \[ \frac{d[R]}{dt} =k_a[A][In]-k_b[R]-k_c[R][Ac]\approx0, \] hence \[ [R]\approx\frac{k_a[A][In]}{k_b+k_c[Ac]}. \]

The consumption rates are \[ -\frac{d[In]}{dt}=\beta k_a[A][In] \] and \[ -\frac{d[Ac]}{dt} =k_c[Ac][R] \approx \frac{k_c[Ac]\,k_a[A][In]}{k_b+k_c[Ac]}. \] Their ratio is therefore \[ \frac{-d[Ac]/dt}{-d[In]/dt} \approx \frac{k_c[Ac]}{\beta(k_b+k_c[Ac])}. \]

With \(Ac\) in sufficient excess to take \([Ac]\approx[Ac]_0\), this ratio is constant throughout the reaction. Integrating, and using complete consumption of \(In\), gives \[ \Delta[Ac]\approx \frac{k_c[Ac]_0}{\beta(k_b+k_c[Ac]_0)}[In]_0. \] At fixed volume, the concentration-consumption ratio equals the amount-consumption ratio, so \[ \boxed{ I\approx\frac{k_c[Ac]_0}{\beta(k_b+k_c[Ac]_0)} =\frac1\beta\frac{[Ac]_0}{k_b/k_c+[Ac]_0}. } \]

This expression approaches \(1/\beta\) as \([Ac]_0\to\infty\), agreeing with 2.1.

For the requested plot, put \([In]_0\) on the horizontal axis and \(I\) on the vertical axis. Draw a horizontal line at \[ I=\frac{k_c[Ac]_0}{\beta(k_b+k_c[Ac]_0)}. \] It applies for positive \([In]_0\) over the range in which \(Ac\) remains effectively constant. At exactly \([In]_0=0\), the consumption ratio is undefined; its right-hand limit is the same height.

2.3

In scheme (4), the productive catalytic reaction regenerates \(In\). A given amount of \(In\) can therefore mediate repeated consumption of \(Ac\) before being lost through reaction (4a).

For the usual first-order catalytic interpretation, write \[ v_{\mathrm{loss}}=k_{\mathrm{loss}}[A][In], \qquad v_{\mathrm{cat}}=k_{\mathrm{cat}}[A][Ac][In]. \] Only the loss reaction consumes \(In\), so \[ \frac{-d[Ac]/dt}{-d[In]/dt} = \frac{v_{\mathrm{cat}}}{\beta v_{\mathrm{loss}}} = \frac{k_{\mathrm{cat}}[Ac]}{\beta k_{\mathrm{loss}}}. \]

As the acceptor concentration increases without bound, productive reaction increasingly outcompetes inductor loss: \[ \boxed{\lim_{[Ac]_0\to\infty}I=\infty.} \] There is no stoichiometric ceiling of \(1/\beta\) for this catalytic scheme.

2.4

The balanced reaction is \[ \ce{Br + H2 <=> HBr + H}. \tag{5} \]

The species involved in this and the following part are:

Species SMILES
Hydrogen molecule, \(\ce{H2}\) [H][H]
Hydrogen bromide, \(\ce{HBr}\) [H]Br
Bromine molecule, \(\ce{Br2}\) BrBr
Hydrogen atom, \(\ce{H}\) [H]
Bromine atom, \(\ce{Br}\) [Br]

The isolated hydrogen and bromine atoms are radicals.

For the elementary forward and reverse reactions, \[ r_5=k_5[\ce{Br}][\ce{H2}], \qquad r_{-5}=k_{-5}[\ce{HBr}][\ce{H}]. \] Define the dimensionless reaction quotient \[ Q_5= \frac{(p(\ce{HBr})/p^\circ)(p(\ce{H})/p^\circ)} {(p(\ce{Br})/p^\circ)(p(\ce{H2})/p^\circ)}. \] Because the forward and reverse steps both involve two gas particles, \[ \frac{r_5}{r_{-5}}=\frac{K_5}{Q_5}, \qquad K_5=\exp\!\left(-\frac{\Delta G^\circ(5)}{RT}\right). \]

The specified pressures give \(Q_5=1\). Using \(R=8.314\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}}\), \[ \frac{r_5}{r_{-5}} = \exp\!\left[ -\frac{66\,000\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}}} {(8.314\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}})(600\ \mathrm K)} \right] =1.7947\times10^{-6}. \] Thus \[ \boxed{\frac{r_5}{r_{-5}}\approx1.8\times10^{-6}.} \]

2.5

The additional balanced step is \[ \ce{H + Br2 -> HBr + Br}. \tag{6} \] Adding reactions (5), in its forward direction, and (6) eliminates the radicals: \[ \ce{H2 + Br2 -> 2HBr}. \]

At steady state, production and consumption of hydrogen atoms balance: \[ \frac{d[\ce{H}]}{dt}=r_5-r_{-5}-r_6=0. \] Therefore, \[ r_5=r_{-5}+r_6. \]

Since \(p(\ce{Br2})=p(\ce{HBr})\), their concentrations are equal at the same temperature. Consequently, \[ \frac{r_6}{r_{-5}} = \frac{k_6[\ce{H}][\ce{Br2}]} {k_{-5}[\ce{H}][\ce{HBr}]} =\frac{k_6}{k_{-5}}=10. \] It follows that \[ \boxed{\frac{r_5}{r_{-5}}=1+10=11.} \]

Using \(r_5/r_{-5}=K_5/Q_5\), the steady-state quotient is \[ Q_5=\frac{K_5}{11}. \] The actual reaction Gibbs energy is therefore \[ \begin{aligned} \Delta G(5) &=\Delta G^\circ(5)+RT\ln Q_5\\ &=\Delta G^\circ(5)+RT\ln K_5-RT\ln11\\ &=-RT\ln11. \end{aligned} \] Numerically, \[ \Delta G(5) =-(8.314)(600)\ln11\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}} =-11.9617\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}. \] Hence \[ \boxed{\Delta G(5)=-12.0\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}.} \]

Reaction (6) consumes hydrogen atoms and produces bromine atoms, lowering \(Q_5\). Thus reaction (5) has a negative actual Gibbs energy under the coupled conditions despite its positive standard Gibbs energy.

2.6

The balanced reactions, with the normalizations used in the question, are \[ \ce{2NH3 + CO2 -> (NH2)2CO + H2O}, \tag{7} \] \[ \ce{1/6 C6H12O6 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O}. \tag{8} \]

Their molecular species are:

Species SMILES
Ammonia, \(\ce{NH3}\) N
Carbon dioxide, \(\ce{CO2}\) O=C=O
Urea, \(\ce{(NH2)2CO}\) NC(=O)N
Water, \(\ce{H2O}\) O
Dioxygen, \(\ce{O2}\) O=O
Glucose, \(\ce{C6H12O6}\), shown as open-chain D-glucose O=C[C@H](O)[C@@H](O)[C@H](O)[C@H](O)CO

The glucose SMILES specifies the configuration of the open-chain D form, not a particular conformation or cyclic anomer. These distinctions do not enter the calculation using the supplied Gibbs energy.

For simultaneous reactions at constant temperature and pressure, \[ \frac1V\frac{dG_{\mathrm{syst}}}{dt} =r_7\Delta G(7)+r_8\Delta G(8). \] The stated requirement is \[ r_7\Delta G(7)+r_8\Delta G(8)<0. \] Substitution gives \[ r_7(46.0\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}) < (6.0\times10^{-8}\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}\,min^{-1}}) (481.2\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}). \] Thus \[ r_7 < \frac{481.2}{46.0} (6.0\times10^{-8}) = 6.2765\times10^{-7}\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}\,min^{-1}}. \]

The upper limiting rate, to the precision of the supplied rate, is \[ \boxed{r_{7,\mathrm{lim}}=6.3\times10^{-7}\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}\,min^{-1}}.} \]

At the unrounded limiting value, the two Gibbs-energy contributions exactly cancel. Strict Gibbs-energy decrease requires a smaller rate. No additional factor of six is needed: both \(r(8)\) and \(\Delta G(8)\) refer to reaction (8) as written.

The solution was checked against the official solution. Where this solution differs from the official solution, the official solution contains an error or a misprint.