IChO 2014 · Theory problem 6

Chemical kinetics

The transition-metal-catalyzed amination of aryl halides has become one of the most powerful methods to synthesize arylamines. The overall reaction for the nickel-catalyzed amination of aryl chloride in basic conditions is:

Figure 1

in which \(\ce{NiLL'}\) is the nickel complex catalyst. The reaction goes through several steps in which the catalyst, reactants, and solvent may be involved in elementary steps.

To determine the reaction order with respect to each reactant, the dependence of the initial rate of the reaction on the concentrations of each reagent was carried out with all other reagents present in large excess. Some kinetic data at 298 K are shown in the tables below. (Use the grids if you like.)

\([\ce{ArCl}]\) (\(\mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}\)) 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6
Initial rate (\(\mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}\,s^{-1}}\)) \(1.88\times10^{-5}\) \(4.13\times10^{-5}\) \(9.42\times10^{-5}\) \(1.50\times10^{-4}\)
Figure 2
\([\ce{NiLL'}]\) (\(\mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}\)) \(6\times10^{-3}\) \(9\times10^{-3}\) \(1.2\times10^{-2}\) \(1.5\times10^{-2}\)
Initial rate (\(\mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}\,s^{-1}}\)) \(4.12\times10^{-5}\) \(6.01\times10^{-5}\) \(7.80\times10^{-5}\) \(1.10\times10^{-4}\)
\([\ce{L'}]\) (\(\mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}\)) 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.15
Initial rate (\(\mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}\,s^{-1}}\)) \(5.8\times10^{-5}\) \(4.3\times10^{-5}\) \(3.4\times10^{-5}\) \(2.8\times10^{-5}\)

6.1 Determine the order with respect to the reagents assuming they are integers.

To study the mechanism for this reaction, \(\ce{^1H}\), \(\ce{^{31}P}\), \(\ce{^{19}F}\), and \(\ce{^{13}C}\) NMR spectroscopy have been used to identify the major transition metal complexes in solution, and the initial rates were measured using reaction calorimetry. An intermediate, \(\ce{NiL(Ar)Cl}\), may be isolated at room temperature. The first two steps of the overall reaction involve the dissociation of a ligand from \(\ce{NiLL'}\) (step 1) at \(50\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\), followed by the oxidation addition (step 2) of aryl chloride to the \(\ce{NiL}\) at room temperature (rt):

Figure 3

6.2 Using the steady state approximation, derive an expression for the rate equation for the formation of \([\ce{NiL(Ar)Cl}]\).

The next steps in the overall reaction involve the amine (\(\ce{RNH2}\)) and \(\ce{^{t}BuONa}\). To determine the order with respect to \(\ce{RNH2}\) and \(\ce{^{t}BuONa}\), the dependence of the initial rates of the reaction on the concentrations of these two reagents was carried with the other reagents present in large excess. Some results are shown in the tables below.

\([\ce{NaO^{t}Bu}]\) (\(\mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}\)) 0.2 0.6 0.9 0.12
Initial rate (\(\mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}\,s^{-1}}\)) \(4.16\times10^{-5}\) \(4.12\times10^{-5}\) \(4.24\times10^{-5}\) \(4.20\times10^{-5}\)
\([\ce{RNH2}]\) (\(\mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}}\)) 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
Initial rate (\(\mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}\,s^{-1}}\)) \(4.12\times10^{-5}\) \(4.26\times10^{-5}\) \(4.21\times10^{-5}\) \(4.23\times10^{-5}\)

6.3 Determine the order with each of these reagents, assuming each is an integer.

(Use the grids if you like)

During a catalytic cycle, a number of different structures may be involved which include the catalyst. One step in the cycle will be rate-determining. A proposed cycle for the nickel-catalyzed coupling of aryl halides with amines is as follows:

Figure 4

6.4 Use the steady-state approximation and material balance equation to derive the rate law for \(\mathrm{d}[\ce{ArNHR}]/\mathrm{d}t\) for the above mechanism in terms of the initial concentration of the catalyst \([\ce{NiLL'}]_0\) and concentrations of \([\ce{ArCl}]\), \([\ce{NH2R}]\), \([\ce{NaO^{t}Bu}]\), and \([\ce{L'}]\).

6.5 Give the simplified form of the rate equation in 6.4 assuming that \(k_1\) is very small.

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 6.1: First order in \(\ce{ArCl}\), first order in \(\ce{NiLL'}\), and order \(-1\) in \(\ce{L'}\).

  • 6.2: \[ \boxed{ \frac{\mathrm{d}[\ce{NiL(Ar)Cl}]}{\mathrm{d}t} = \frac{k_1k_2[\ce{NiLL'}][\ce{ArCl}]} {k_{-1}[\ce{L'}]+k_2[\ce{ArCl}]} } \]

  • 6.3: Zero order in both \(\ce{RNH2}\) and \(\ce{NaO^{t}Bu}\).

  • 6.4: \[ \boxed{ \frac{\mathrm{d}[\ce{ArNHR}]}{\mathrm{d}t} = \frac{ k_1k_2[\ce{NiLL'}]_0[\ce{ArCl}] }{ k_{-1}[\ce{L'}]+ k_1\left( 1+ \dfrac{k_2[\ce{ArCl}]}{k_3[\ce{NH2R}][\ce{NaO^{t}Bu}]} + \dfrac{k_2[\ce{ArCl}]}{k_4} \right) } } \]

  • 6.5: When \(k_1\) is sufficiently small that \(k_{-1}[\ce{L'}]\) dominates the denominator, \[ \boxed{ \frac{\mathrm{d}[\ce{ArNHR}]}{\mathrm{d}t} \simeq \frac{k_1k_2}{k_{-1}}\, \frac{[\ce{NiLL'}]_0[\ce{ArCl}]}{[\ce{L'}]} } \]

Solution

The groups \(\ce{Ar}\), \(\ce{R}\), \(\ce{L}\), and \(\ce{L'}\) are unspecified, so unique molecular structures and complete molecular SMILES cannot be assigned. The following wildcard templates identify the species used below. The mapped wildcards [*:1], [*:2], [*:3], and [*:4] represent the unspecified aryl, organic, ligand \(\ce{L}\), and ligand \(\ce{L'}\) fragments, respectively.

Species Name or description SMILES or schematic SMILES template
\(\ce{ArCl}\) Aryl chloride [*:1]Cl
\(\ce{RNH2}\), also written \(\ce{NH2R}\) Primary amine [*:2]N
\(\ce{ArNHR}\) \(N\)-substituted arylamine [*:1]N[*:2]
\(\ce{L}\), \(\ce{L'}\) Unspecified ligands [*:3], [*:4]
\(\ce{NiLL'}\) Nickel catalyst bearing both ligands [*:3]->[Ni]<-[*:4]
\(\ce{NiL}\) Nickel complex after ligand dissociation [*:3]->[Ni]
\(\ce{NiL(Ar)Cl}\) Aryl–chlorido nickel intermediate bearing \(\ce{L}\) [*:3]->[Ni]([*:1])Cl
\(\ce{NiL(Ar)NHR}\) Aryl–amido nickel intermediate bearing \(\ce{L}\) [*:3]->[Ni]([*:1])N[*:2]
\(\ce{NaO^{t}Bu}\) Sodium tert-butoxide [Na+].[O-]C(C)(C)C
\(\ce{^{t}BuOH}\) tert-Butanol, or 2-methylpropan-2-ol CC(C)(C)O
\(\ce{NaCl}\) Sodium chloride [Na+].[Cl-]
\(\ce{HCl}\) Hydrogen chloride [H]Cl

The nickel templates show only schematic connectivity. They do not establish ligand denticity, metal oxidation states, conformation, or coordination geometry. Individual SMILES also do not describe the mechanism’s electron flow.

6.1 — Orders in aryl chloride, catalyst, and free ligand

With all other concentrations fixed, write the initial rate as \[ r=Kc^n. \] For two measurements, \[ n=\frac{\ln(r_2/r_1)}{\ln(c_2/c_1)}. \]

Using the first and last measurements in each table gives:

Varied reagent Concentration ratio \(c_2/c_1\) Rate ratio \(r_2/r_1\) Calculated \(n\) Integer assignment
\(\ce{ArCl}\) \(6.00\) \(7.98\) \(1.16\) \(+1\)
\(\ce{NiLL'}\) \(2.50\) \(2.67\) \(1.07\) \(+1\)
\(\ce{L'}\) \(2.50\) \(0.483\) \(-0.795\) \(-1\)

For example, \[ n_{\ce{ArCl}} = \frac{\ln\!\left[(1.50\times10^{-4})/(1.88\times10^{-5})\right]} {\ln(0.6/0.1)} =1.16. \]

The measurements do not follow exact integer power laws, but under the stipulated integer-order assumption they give \[ \boxed{ n_{\ce{ArCl}}=1,\qquad n_{\ce{NiLL'}}=1,\qquad n_{\ce{L'}}=-1. } \]

Thus, under the measured conditions, \[ r\propto \frac{[\ce{NiLL'}][\ce{ArCl}]}{[\ce{L'}]}. \] The negative order means that adding free ligand inhibits the reaction.

6.2 — Steady-state treatment of the first two steps

Define \[ c=[\ce{NiLL'}],\qquad x=[\ce{NiL}],\qquad a=[\ce{ArCl}],\qquad \ell=[\ce{L'}]. \]

The intermediate \(\ce{NiL}\) is formed by ligand dissociation and consumed by ligand reassociation and oxidative addition. Therefore, \[ \frac{\mathrm{d}x}{\mathrm{d}t} = k_1c-k_{-1}x\ell-k_2xa. \]

Applying the steady-state approximation to \(\ce{NiL}\), \[ 0\simeq k_1c-(k_{-1}\ell+k_2a)x, \] so \[ x\simeq\frac{k_1c}{k_{-1}\ell+k_2a}. \]

The formation rate of the aryl–chlorido nickel intermediate is the rate of step (2): \[ \frac{\mathrm{d}[\ce{NiL(Ar)Cl}]}{\mathrm{d}t}=k_2xa. \]

Consequently, \[ \boxed{ \frac{\mathrm{d}[\ce{NiL(Ar)Cl}]}{\mathrm{d}t} = \frac{k_1k_2[\ce{NiLL'}][\ce{ArCl}]} {k_{-1}[\ce{L'}]+k_2[\ce{ArCl}]}. } \]

Here \([\ce{NiLL'}]\) is the concentration of that particular catalyst species; it has not yet been replaced by the conserved total nickel concentration.

6.3 — Orders in amine and base

Changing the base concentration across the listed values changes the rate only from \(4.12\times10^{-5}\) to \(4.24\times10^{-5}\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}\,s^{-1}}\), approximately a \(3\%\) variation.

Likewise, a fourfold increase in amine concentration leaves the rate approximately unchanged at \[ r\simeq4.2\times10^{-5}\ \mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}\,s^{-1}}. \]

Thus neither reagent has an appreciable rate dependence over the measured ranges. The integer orders are \[ \boxed{ n_{\ce{RNH2}}=0,\qquad n_{\ce{NaO^{t}Bu}}=0. } \]

Zero order does not mean these reagents are absent from the mechanism; their concentrations do not control the rate in this kinetic regime.

6.4 — Full catalytic-cycle rate law

In addition to the notation above, define \[ y=[\ce{NiL(Ar)Cl}],\qquad z=[\ce{NiL(Ar)NHR}], \] \[ n=[\ce{NH2R}],\qquad b=[\ce{NaO^{t}Bu}],\qquad C_T=[\ce{NiLL'}]_0. \]

The balanced net reaction obtained by adding steps (2)–(4) is \[ \ce{ArCl + RNH2 + NaO^{t}Bu -> ArNHR + ^{t}BuOH + NaCl}. \]

For the full cycle, the steady-state balances of the three intermediates are \[ \begin{aligned} 0\simeq\frac{\mathrm{d}x}{\mathrm{d}t} &=k_1c-k_{-1}\ell x-k_2ax+k_4z,\\ 0\simeq\frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}t} &=k_2ax-k_3nby,\\ 0\simeq\frac{\mathrm{d}z}{\mathrm{d}t} &=k_3nby-k_4z. \end{aligned} \]

The term \(+k_4z\) in the first equation is essential: step (4) regenerates \(\ce{NiL}\).

The last two equations show that the forward fluxes through steps (2), (3), and (4) are equal: \[ r=\frac{\mathrm{d}[\ce{ArNHR}]}{\mathrm{d}t} =k_4z=k_3nby=k_2ax. \]

Hence, \[ y=\frac{k_2a}{k_3nb}\,x, \qquad z=\frac{k_2a}{k_4}\,x. \]

Substituting \(k_4z=k_2ax\) into the first steady-state equation gives \[ k_1c=k_{-1}\ell x, \qquad c=\frac{k_{-1}\ell}{k_1}\,x. \]

Each catalyst species contains one nickel atom, so conservation of nickel gives \[ C_T=c+x+y+z. \]

Substitution yields \[ C_T =x\left( \frac{k_{-1}\ell}{k_1} +1 +\frac{k_2a}{k_3nb} +\frac{k_2a}{k_4} \right). \]

Solving for \(x\) and using \(r=k_2ax\), \[ r= \frac{k_1k_2aC_T} {k_{-1}\ell+k_1\left( 1+\dfrac{k_2a}{k_3nb}+\dfrac{k_2a}{k_4} \right)}. \]

Therefore, \[ \boxed{ \frac{\mathrm{d}[\ce{ArNHR}]}{\mathrm{d}t} = \frac{ k_1k_2[\ce{NiLL'}]_0[\ce{ArCl}] }{ k_{-1}[\ce{L'}]+ k_1\left( 1+ \dfrac{k_2[\ce{ArCl}]}{k_3[\ce{NH2R}][\ce{NaO^{t}Bu}]} + \dfrac{k_2[\ce{ArCl}]}{k_4} \right) }. } \]

For the elementary steps as written, the rate-constant units are \[ \begin{aligned} [k_1]=[k_4]&=\mathrm{s^{-1}},\\ [k_{-1}]=[k_2]&=\mathrm{dm^3\,mol^{-1}\,s^{-1}},\\ [k_3]&=\mathrm{dm^6\,mol^{-2}\,s^{-1}}. \end{aligned} \] Every denominator term therefore has units \(\mathrm{s^{-1}}\), and the resulting rate has units \(\mathrm{mol\,dm^{-3}\,s^{-1}}\).

6.5 — Small-\(k_1\) limit

At fixed, nonzero free-ligand concentration, the required approximation is \[ k_1\left( 1+\frac{k_2a}{k_3nb}+\frac{k_2a}{k_4} \right)\ll k_{-1}\ell. \]

The denominator in 6.4 then reduces to \(k_{-1}\ell\), giving \[ \boxed{ r\simeq \frac{k_1k_2}{k_{-1}} \frac{[\ce{NiLL'}]_0[\ce{ArCl}]}{[\ce{L'}]}. } \]

In this limit, most nickel remains as \(\ce{NiLL'}\), and \[ [\ce{NiL}] \simeq \frac{k_1}{k_{-1}} \frac{[\ce{NiLL'}]_0}{[\ce{L'}]}. \]

The simplified rate law predicts precisely the assigned experimental orders:

Reagent Predicted order
Aryl chloride \(+1\)
Total nickel catalyst \(+1\)
Free ligand \(-1\)
Amine \(0\)
Sodium tert-butoxide \(0\)

The effective coefficient \(k_1k_2/k_{-1}\) has units \(\mathrm{s^{-1}}\).

The solution was checked against the official solution.