IChO 2007 · Theory problem 2

Nanochemistry

Metals of the iron subgroup are effective catalysts of hydrogenation of \(\ce{CO}\) (Fischer-Tropsch reaction)

Figure 1

Catalyst (e.g. cobalt) is often used in the form of solid nanoparticles that have a spherical structure (fig.1). The reduction in size of the catalyst increases catalytic activity significantly. The unwanted side-reaction however involves the oxidation of the catalyst:

Figure 2

Solid cobalt oxide (bulk) is formed in the reaction vessel. This causes an irreversible loss of the catalyst’s mass. Solid cobalt oxide can also be deposited on the surface of \(\ce{Co(s)}\). In this case the new spherical layer is formed around the surface of the catalyst (see figure 2) and the catalytic activity drops.

Figure 3

Fig. 1

Figure 4

Fig. 2

Let us see how formation of nanoparticles affects the equilibrium of reaction (1).

\[ G^0(r)=G^0(\mathrm{bulk})+\frac{2\sigma}{r}V \]

2.1 Calculate the standard Gibbs energy \(\Delta_rG^0(1)\) and the equilibrium constant for the reaction (1) at \(T=500\ \mathrm{K}\).

2.2 Calculate the equilibrium constant for reaction (1) when the cobalt catalyst is dispersed in the form of spherical particles (Fig. 1) of radius:

(a) \(10^{-8}\ \mathrm{m}\),·

(b) \(10^{-9}\ \mathrm{m}\).

The surface tension at the Co-gas interface is \(0.16\ \mathrm{J\,m^{-2}}\). \(\ce{CoO}\) forms a bulk phase.

The mixture of gases involved in the Fischer-Tropsch (\(\ce{CO}\), \(\ce{CH4}\), \(\ce{H2}\), \(\ce{H2O}\)) reaction was put into a reaction vessel containing the cobalt catalyst. The total pressure is \(p=1\ \mathrm{bar}\), temperature is \(T=500\ \mathrm{K}\). The mole fraction of hydrogen (%) in the mixture is \(0.15\ \%\).

2.3 At what minimum mole fraction of water (%) in the gas mixture the unwanted spontaneous oxidation of the catalyst becomes possible so that solid bulk \(\ce{CoO}\) may appear in the system? Assume that cobalt catalyst is in the form of

(a) a bulk phase

(b) spherical nanoparticles with \(r_a=1\ \mathrm{nm}\) (Fig. 1).

2.4 What would you suggest to protect \(\ce{Co}\) nanoparticles from the spontaneous oxidation with the formation of bulk \(\ce{CoO}\) at a constant ratio \(p(\ce{H2O})/p(\ce{H2})\) and a constant temperature:

(a) to increase \(r_a\);

(b) to decrease \(r_a\);

(c) change of \(r_a\) has no effect.

Assume now that solid cobalt oxide forms a spherical layer around a nanoparticle of cobalt. In this case the nanoparticle contains both a reactant (\(\ce{Co}\)) and a product (\(\ce{CoO}\)) (Fig. 2).

In the following problems denote surface tensions as \(\sigma_{\ce{CoO}-\mathrm{gas}}\), \(\sigma_{\ce{CoO}-\ce{Co}}\), radii as \(r_a\), \(r_b\), molar volumes as \(V(\ce{Co})\); \(V(\ce{CoO})\).

2.5 Write down the expression for the standard molar Gibbs function of \(\ce{CoO}\).

2.6 Write down the expression for the standard molar Gibbs function of \(\ce{Co}\).

Hint. If two spherical interfaces surround a nanoparticle, the excess pressure at its centre is given by the expression

\[ P_{\mathrm{in}}-P_{\mathrm{ex}} =\Delta P=\Delta P_1+\Delta P_2 =2\frac{\sigma_1}{r_1}+2\frac{\sigma_2}{r_2} \]

\(r_i\), \(\sigma_i\) are radius and surface tension at the spherical interface \(i\), respectively.

2.7 Express the standard Gibbs energy of the reaction (1) \(\Delta_rG^0(1,r_a,r_b)\) in terms of \(\sigma_{\ce{CoO}-\mathrm{gas}}\), \(\sigma_{\ce{CoO}-\ce{Co}}\), \(r_a\), \(r_b\), \(V(\ce{Co})\); \(V(\ce{CoO})\) and \(\Delta_rG^0(1)\).

2.8 When spontaneous oxidation of \(\ce{Co}\) begins the radii of two layers in the nanoparticle (Fig. 2) are almost equal, \(r_a=r_b=r_0\), and \(\Delta_rG^0(1,r_a,r_b)=\Delta_rG^0(1,r_0)\). Assume that \(\sigma_{\ce{CoO}-\mathrm{gas}}=2\sigma_{\ce{CoO}-\ce{Co}}\). Which plot in the Answer Sheet describes correctly the dependence of \(\Delta_rG^0(1,r_0)\) on \(r_0\)?

2.9 What would you choose to protect \(\ce{Co}\) nanoparticles from the spontaneous formation of the external layer of \(\ce{CoO}\) at a constant ratio \(p(\ce{H2O})/p(\ce{H2})\) and a constant temperature:

a) increase \(r_0\)

b) decrease \(r_0\)

c) change of \(r_0\) has no effect.

.

Reference data:

Substance \(\rho,\ \mathrm{g\,cm^{-3}}\) \(\Delta_{\mathrm f}G^0_{500},\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)
\(\ce{Co}\) (s) 8.90
\(\ce{CoO}\) (s) 5.68 \(-198.4\)
\(\ce{H2O}\) (gas) \(-219.1\)

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

For compactness, define \[ \sigma_o=\sigma_{\ce{CoO}-\mathrm{gas}},\qquad \sigma_i=\sigma_{\ce{CoO}-\ce{Co}},\qquad V_c=V(\ce{Co}),\qquad V_o=V(\ce{CoO}). \]

  • 2.1: \(\boxed{\Delta_rG^0(1)=+20.7\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}}\), \(\boxed{K_{\mathrm{bulk}}=6.88\times10^{-3}}\).
  • 2.2: (a) \(\boxed{K(10^{-8}\ \mathrm m)=7.24\times10^{-3}}\); (b) \(\boxed{K(10^{-9}\ \mathrm m)=1.14\times10^{-2}}\).
  • 2.3: Water mole-fraction thresholds: (a) \(\boxed{21.8\%}\); (b) \(\boxed{13.1\%}\). Forward oxidation is spontaneous above the respective threshold.
  • 2.4: \(\boxed{\text{(a) Increase }r_a}\).
  • 2.5: \(\boxed{G^0_{\ce{CoO}}=G^0_{\ce{CoO}}(\mathrm{bulk})+\dfrac{2\sigma_oV_o}{r_b}}\).
  • 2.6: \(\boxed{G^0_{\ce{Co}}=G^0_{\ce{Co}}(\mathrm{bulk})+2V_c\left(\dfrac{\sigma_o}{r_b}+\dfrac{\sigma_i}{r_a}\right)}\).
  • 2.7: \(\boxed{\Delta_rG^0(1,r_a,r_b)=\Delta_rG^0(1)+\dfrac{2\sigma_o}{r_b}(V_o-V_c)-\dfrac{2\sigma_iV_c}{r_a}}\).
  • 2.8: \(\boxed{\Delta_rG^0(1,r_0)=\Delta_rG^0(1)+A/r_0}\), where \(A=2\sigma_i(2V_o-3V_c)>0\). The curve decreases, is convex upward, and approaches \(+20.7\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\) from above as \(r_0\) increases.
  • 2.9: \(\boxed{\text{(b) Decrease }r_0}\), under the surface-tension assumption in 2.8.

Solution

The molecular species are carbon monoxide, \(\ce{CO}\), [C-]#[O+]; methane, \(\ce{CH4}\), C; hydrogen, \(\ce{H2}\), [H][H]; and water, \(\ce{H2O}\), O. Cobalt is a metallic solid: [Co] represents an individual atom, not its metallic lattice. Cobalt(II) oxide is an ionic solid: [Co+2].[O-2] records its constituent ions but does not specify its crystal lattice.

The balanced catalytic reaction is \[ \ce{CO + 3H2 ->[Fe,Co] CH4 + H2O}. \] The oxidation equilibrium considered throughout the problem is \[ \ce{Co(s) + H2O(g) <=> CoO(s) + H2(g)}. \tag{1} \]

For the calculations, use \[ R=8.314\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}},\qquad M(\ce{Co})=58.93\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}},\qquad M(\ce{O})=16.00\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}. \]

2.1 — Bulk reaction Gibbs energy and equilibrium constant

The standard Gibbs energies of formation of elemental cobalt and hydrogen in their standard states are zero. Therefore, \[ \begin{aligned} \Delta_rG^0(1) &=\Delta_{\mathrm f}G^0(\ce{CoO}) +\Delta_{\mathrm f}G^0(\ce{H2}) -\Delta_{\mathrm f}G^0(\ce{Co}) -\Delta_{\mathrm f}G^0(\ce{H2O})\\ &=(-198.4)+0-0-(-219.1)\\ &=\boxed{+20.7\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}}. \end{aligned} \]

Since \(\Delta_rG^0=-RT\ln K\), \[ K_{\mathrm{bulk}} =\exp\!\left(-\frac{20700}{8.314\times500}\right) =\boxed{6.88\times10^{-3}}. \]

For bulk pure solids, their activities are unity. Treating the gases as ideal, \[ K_{\mathrm{bulk}} =\frac{p(\ce{H2})/p^0}{p(\ce{H2O})/p^0} =\frac{p(\ce{H2})}{p(\ce{H2O})}. \] Thus \(K\) is dimensionless.

2.2 — Equilibrium constants for cobalt nanoparticles

The molar volume of cobalt is \[ V_c=\frac{M(\ce{Co})}{\rho(\ce{Co})} =\frac{58.93}{8.90} =6.621\ \mathrm{cm^3\,mol^{-1}} =6.621\times10^{-6}\ \mathrm{m^3\,mol^{-1}}. \]

The surface correction raises the molar Gibbs energy of the cobalt reactant: \[ G^0_{\ce{Co}}(r_a) =G^0_{\ce{Co}}(\mathrm{bulk}) +\frac{2\sigma_{\ce{Co}-\mathrm{gas}}V_c}{r_a}. \] Because the oxide product remains bulk, \[ \boxed{ \Delta_rG^0(1,r_a) =\Delta_rG^0(1) -\frac{2\sigma_{\ce{Co}-\mathrm{gas}}V_c}{r_a} }. \]

Consequently, \[ K(r_a) =K_{\mathrm{bulk}} \exp\!\left(\frac{2\sigma_{\ce{Co}-\mathrm{gas}}V_c}{r_aRT}\right). \]

With \(\sigma_{\ce{Co}-\mathrm{gas}}=0.16\ \mathrm{J\,m^{-2}}\):

Part \(r_a\), \(\mathrm m\) \(2\sigma V_c/r_a\), \(\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\) \(\Delta_rG^0(1,r_a)\), \(\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\) \(K(r_a)\)
(a) \(10^{-8}\) 0.2119 20.488 \(\boxed{7.24\times10^{-3}}\)
(b) \(10^{-9}\) 2.1188 18.581 \(\boxed{1.14\times10^{-2}}\)

Smaller cobalt particles have a larger molar Gibbs energy, making their oxidation to bulk oxide more favorable.

2.3 — Minimum water mole fraction

At a specified gas composition, \[ \Delta_rG =\Delta_rG^0+RT\ln Q,\qquad Q=\frac{p(\ce{H2})}{p(\ce{H2O})} =\frac{x_{\ce{H2}}}{x_{\ce{H2O}}}. \] The total pressure cancels because the reaction consumes and produces equal numbers of gas molecules.

Forward oxidation is favorable when \[ \Delta_rG<0 \quad\Longleftrightarrow\quad Q<K \quad\Longleftrightarrow\quad x_{\ce{H2O}}>\frac{x_{\ce{H2}}}{K}. \]

The critical composition is therefore \[ x_{\ce{H2O},\mathrm{crit}}=\frac{x_{\ce{H2}}}{K}, \qquad x_{\ce{H2}}=\frac{0.15}{100}=0.0015. \]

For (a) bulk cobalt, using the unrounded equilibrium constant, \[ x_{\ce{H2O},\mathrm{crit}} =\frac{0.0015}{0.00687714} =0.2181, \] so \[ \boxed{x_{\ce{H2O},\mathrm{crit}}=21.8\%}. \]

For (b) cobalt particles with \(r_a=1\ \mathrm{nm}\), \[ x_{\ce{H2O},\mathrm{crit}} =\frac{0.0015}{0.0114490} =0.1310, \] so \[ \boxed{x_{\ce{H2O},\mathrm{crit}}=13.1\%}. \]

At these thresholds, \(\Delta_rG=0\); strictly spontaneous forward oxidation requires a slightly higher water mole fraction at the stated hydrogen mole fraction.

2.4 — Protecting cobalt against formation of bulk oxide

At fixed temperature and gas-pressure ratio, \[ \Delta_rG =\Delta_rG^0(1) -\frac{2\sigma_{\ce{Co}-\mathrm{gas}}V_c}{r_a} +RT\ln\frac{p(\ce{H2})}{p(\ce{H2O})}. \] Hence \[ \frac{\partial\Delta_rG}{\partial r_a} =\frac{2\sigma_{\ce{Co}-\mathrm{gas}}V_c}{r_a^2}>0. \]

Increasing the particle radius raises the reaction Gibbs energy and suppresses oxidation: \[ \boxed{\text{Choose (a): increase }r_a.} \]

2.5 — Molar Gibbs function of the oxide shell

For the geometry in Fig. 2, the oxide shell lies beneath the outer interface of radius \(r_b\). Its pressure exceeds the external gas pressure by \[ P_{\ce{CoO}}-P_{\mathrm{gas}}=\frac{2\sigma_o}{r_b}. \]

At constant temperature, an approximately incompressible phase obeys \(dG_m=V_m\,dP\). Therefore, \[ \boxed{ G^0_{\ce{CoO}} =G^0_{\ce{CoO}}(\mathrm{bulk}) +\frac{2\sigma_oV_o}{r_b} }. \]

2.6 — Molar Gibbs function of the cobalt core

The cobalt core experiences the pressure increments across both interfaces: \[ P_{\ce{Co}}-P_{\mathrm{gas}} =\frac{2\sigma_o}{r_b}+\frac{2\sigma_i}{r_a}. \]

Thus, \[ \boxed{ G^0_{\ce{Co}} =G^0_{\ce{Co}}(\mathrm{bulk}) +2V_c\left(\frac{\sigma_o}{r_b}+\frac{\sigma_i}{r_a}\right) }. \]

2.7 — Reaction Gibbs energy for a particle with an oxide shell

Subtract the cobalt correction from the oxide correction. The gas contributions remain unchanged: \[ \begin{aligned} \Delta_rG^0(1,r_a,r_b) &=\Delta_rG^0(1) +\frac{2\sigma_oV_o}{r_b} -\left(\frac{2\sigma_oV_c}{r_b} +\frac{2\sigma_iV_c}{r_a}\right). \end{aligned} \]

Therefore, \[ \boxed{ \Delta_rG^0(1,r_a,r_b) =\Delta_rG^0(1) +\frac{2\sigma_o}{r_b}(V_o-V_c) -\frac{2\sigma_iV_c}{r_a} }. \]

2.8 — Dependence on the initial radius

Set \(r_a=r_b=r_0\) and \(\sigma_o=2\sigma_i\): \[ \begin{aligned} \Delta_rG^0(1,r_0) &=\Delta_rG^0(1) +\frac{4\sigma_i}{r_0}(V_o-V_c) -\frac{2\sigma_iV_c}{r_0}\\ &=\boxed{ \Delta_rG^0(1) +\frac{2\sigma_i}{r_0}(2V_o-3V_c) }. \end{aligned} \]

The oxide molar volume is \[ V_o =\frac{58.93+16.00}{5.68} =13.192\ \mathrm{cm^3\,mol^{-1}}. \] Consequently, \[ 2V_o-3V_c =2(13.192)-3(6.621) =6.520\ \mathrm{cm^3\,mol^{-1}}>0. \]

Define \[ A=2\sigma_i(2V_o-3V_c)>0. \] The required function is \[ \boxed{ \Delta_rG^0(1,r_0) =20.7\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}+\frac{A}{r_0} }, \] with consistent units used for \(A/r_0\).

Its derivatives are \[ \frac{d\Delta_rG^0}{dr_0}=-\frac{A}{r_0^2}<0, \qquad \frac{d^2\Delta_rG^0}{dr_0^2}=\frac{2A}{r_0^3}>0. \]

The required plot has \(r_0>0\) on the horizontal axis and \(\Delta_rG^0(1,r_0)\) on the vertical axis. It decreases steeply at small radii, curves upward, and flattens toward the horizontal asymptote \[ \Delta_rG^0=+20.7\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}} \] from above. Within the given mathematical model, it tends to \(+\infty\) as \(r_0\to0^+\).

2.9 — Protecting cobalt against formation of an oxide shell

Under the assumptions of 2.8, \[ \Delta_rG =\Delta_rG^0(1)+\frac{A}{r_0} +RT\ln\frac{p(\ce{H2})}{p(\ce{H2O})}, \qquad A>0. \]

At fixed temperature and gas ratio, decreasing \(r_0\) increases the positive surface contribution \(A/r_0\). This makes oxide-shell formation less favorable.

\[ \boxed{\text{Choose (b): decrease }r_0.} \]

The solution was checked against the official solution.