IChO 2004 · Theory problem 2

Kinetics at catalyst surfaces

Apart from other compounds the exhaust gases of an Otto engine are the main pollutants carbon monoxide, nitrogen monoxide and uncombusted hydrocarbons, as, for example, octane. To minimize them they are converted to carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water in a regulated three-way catalytic converter.

2.1 Complete the chemical reaction equations for the reactions of the main pollutants in the catalyst.

To remove the main pollutants from the exhaust gas of an Otto engine optimally, the \(\lambda\)-value is determined by an electro-chemical element, the so called lambda probe. It is located in the exhaust gas stream between engine and the three-way catalytic converter.

The lambda value is defined as \[ \lambda= \frac{\text{amount of air at the inlet}} {\text{amount of air necessary for complete combustion}}. \]

Figure 1

2.2 Decide the questions on the answer sheet concerning the \(\lambda\) probe.

The adsorption of gas molecules on a solid surface can be described in a simple model by using the Langmuir isotherm: \[ \theta=\frac{K\times p}{1+K\times p} \] where \(\theta\) is the fraction of surface sites that are occupied by the gas molecules, p is the gas pressure and K is a constant.

The adsorption of a gas at 25 °C may be described by using the Langmuir isotherm with \(K=0.85\ \mathrm{kPa^{-1}}\).

2.3 a) Determine the surface coverage \(\theta\) at a pressure of 0.65 kPa.

b) Determine the pressure p at which 15 % of the surface is covered.

c) The rate r of the decomposition of gas molecules at a solid surface depends on the surface coverage \(\theta\) (reverse reaction neglected): \(r=k\theta\)

Give the order of the decomposition reaction at low and at high gas pressures assuming the validity of the Langmuir isotherm given above (products to be neglected).

d) Data for the adsorption of another gas on a metal surface (at 25 °C)

Figure 2

If the Langmuir isotherm can be applied, determine the gas volume \(V_{\mathrm{a,max}}\) needed for a complete coverage of the metal surface and the product \(K V_{\mathrm{a,max}}\).

Hint: Set \(\theta=V_{\mathrm a}/V_{\mathrm{a,max}}\).

Assume that the catalytic oxidation of \(\ce{CO}\) on a \(\ce{Pd}\) surface with equal surface sites proceeds in the following way:

In a first step adsorbed \(\ce{CO}\) and adsorbed \(\ce{O2}\) form adsorbed \(\ce{CO2}\) in a fast equilibrium,

Figure 3

In a slow second step, \(\ce{CO2}\) is then desorbed from the surface:

Figure 4

2.4 Derive the formula for the reaction rate of the \(\ce{CO2(g)}\) - formation as a function of the partial pressures of the reaction components.

Hint: Use the Langmuir isotherm with the proper number of gas components \[ \theta_i= \frac{K_i\times p_i} {1+\displaystyle\sum_j K_j\times p_j} \qquad \text{j: relevant gas components} \]

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 2.1 \[ \ce{2CO + O2 -> 2CO2} \] \[ \ce{2NO + 2CO -> N2 + 2CO2} \] \[ \ce{2C8H18 + 25O2 -> 16CO2 + 18H2O} \]

  • 2.2 Simultaneous removal of the three pollutants requires operation within the narrow \(\lambda\)-window near \(\lambda=1\), slightly on the fuel-rich side in the diagram.
    \(\lambda<1\): fuel-rich, insufficient air.
    \(\lambda>1\): fuel-lean, excess air.
    The probe supplies an oxygen-dependent voltage used to regulate the air–fuel ratio. The individual answer-sheet statements are unavailable.

  • 2.3(a) \(\boxed{\theta\approx0.36}\), or approximately \(\boxed{36\%}\) coverage.

  • 2.3(b) \(\boxed{p\approx0.21\ \mathrm{kPa}}\).

  • 2.3(c) First order at low pressure, \(Kp\ll1\); zero order at high pressure, \(Kp\gg1\).

  • 2.3(d) From the plotted straight line: \[ \boxed{V_{\mathrm{a,max}}\approx0.53\ \mathrm{cm^3}}, \qquad \boxed{K V_{\mathrm{a,max}}\approx1.7\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{cm^3\,Pa^{-1}}}. \]

  • 2.4 \[ \boxed{ r=\frac{k_1k_2}{k_{-1}}\, \frac{K_{\ce{CO}}p_{\ce{CO}} \sqrt{K_{\ce{O2}}p_{\ce{O2}}}} {D^{3/2}} } \] For reactant-only competitive adsorption, \[ D=1+K_{\ce{CO}}p_{\ce{CO}}+K_{\ce{O2}}p_{\ce{O2}}. \] If gaseous carbon dioxide is also included as a competing adsorbate, use \[ D=1+K_{\ce{CO}}p_{\ce{CO}} +K_{\ce{O2}}p_{\ce{O2}} +K_{\ce{CO2}}p_{\ce{CO2}}. \] The distinction is discussed below.

Solution

The molecular and ionic identities used in the solution are:

Name Formula SMILES
Carbon monoxide \(\ce{CO}\) [C-]#[O+]
Nitrogen monoxide, or nitric oxide \(\ce{NO}\) [N]=O
Octane, represented by \(n\)-octane \(\ce{C8H18}\) CCCCCCCC
Carbon dioxide \(\ce{CO2}\) O=C=O
Dinitrogen \(\ce{N2}\) N#N
Water \(\ce{H2O}\) O
Dioxygen \(\ce{O2}\) O=O
Oxide ion \(\ce{O^2-}\) [O-2]

All octane isomers have the same combustion stoichiometry. These SMILES describe the molecular identities; they do not specify adsorption geometries on palladium. The conventional dioxygen SMILES also does not specify its triplet electronic ground state.

2.1 — Reactions in the catalytic converter

Carbon monoxide is oxidized to carbon dioxide: \[ \ce{2CO + O2 -> 2CO2}. \] Carbon changes from oxidation state \(+2\) to \(+4\).

Nitrogen monoxide is reduced to nitrogen, with carbon monoxide supplying the reducing equivalents: \[ \ce{2NO + 2CO -> N2 + 2CO2}. \] Each nitrogen atom changes from \(+2\) to \(0\), accepting two electrons. Each carbon atom changes from \(+2\) to \(+4\), supplying two electrons. Thus the required mole ratio of nitrogen monoxide to carbon monoxide is \(1:1\).

Complete oxidation of one octane molecule produces eight carbon dioxide molecules and nine water molecules: \[ \ce{C8H18 + 25/2 O2 -> 8CO2 + 9H2O}. \] The products contain \(16+9=25\) oxygen atoms. Multiplying by two gives integer coefficients: \[ \boxed{\ce{2C8H18 + 25O2 -> 16CO2 + 18H2O}}. \]

2.2 — Lambda probe and operating window

The definition of \(\lambda\) directly gives:

Condition Air–fuel mixture Consequence for conversion
\(\lambda<1\) Fuel-rich; less air than required for complete combustion Nitrogen monoxide reduction is favoured, but oxidation of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons is limited by oxygen availability.
\(\lambda\approx1\) Approximately stoichiometric A narrow range permits efficient simultaneous oxidation and reduction.
\(\lambda>1\) Fuel-lean; excess air Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon oxidation are favoured, while nitrogen monoxide reduction becomes inefficient.

In the diagram, the operating window is the narrow band between the two marked vertical lines immediately below and approximately at \(\lambda=1\). The falling curve represents nitrogen oxides; the two rising curves represent carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.

A conventional oxygen-ion-conducting lambda probe is an electrochemical oxygen concentration cell. Its electrode equilibrium is \[ \ce{O2 + 4e- <=> 2O^2-}. \] Oxide ions move through the solid electrolyte, and electrons move through the external circuit.

With reference air on one side and exhaust gas on the other, the ideal cell voltage, with the reference electrode taken as positive, is \[ E=\frac{RT}{4F} \ln\!\left( \frac{p_{\ce{O2},\mathrm{reference}}} {p_{\ce{O2},\mathrm{exhaust}}} \right). \] Here \(T\) is the probe’s operating temperature.

Fuel-rich exhaust has a very low oxygen partial pressure and gives a relatively high voltage. Lean exhaust has a higher oxygen partial pressure and gives a lower voltage. This signal allows the engine controller to adjust the fuel supply and keep \(\lambda\) within the operating window.

2.3(a) — Surface coverage

Using \[ \theta=\frac{Kp}{1+Kp}, \] the dimensionless product is \[ Kp=(0.85\ \mathrm{kPa^{-1}})(0.65\ \mathrm{kPa})=0.5525. \] Therefore, \[ \theta=\frac{0.5525}{1.5525}=0.35588. \] To two significant figures, \[ \boxed{\theta=0.36,\qquad \text{coverage}=36\%}. \]

2.3(b) — Pressure for 15% coverage

Rearranging the Langmuir equation, \[ \theta(1+Kp)=Kp, \] \[ \theta=Kp(1-\theta), \] so \[ p=\frac{\theta}{K(1-\theta)}. \] At \(\theta=0.15\), \[ p= \frac{0.15} {(0.85\ \mathrm{kPa^{-1}})(0.85)} =0.20761\ \mathrm{kPa}. \] Thus, \[ \boxed{p=0.21\ \mathrm{kPa}}. \]

2.3(c) — Limiting reaction orders

Substitution of the Langmuir isotherm into \(r=k\theta\) gives \[ r=\frac{kKp}{1+Kp}. \]

At low pressure, \(Kp\ll1\): \[ r\approx kKp. \] The rate is proportional to pressure, so the reaction is first order.

At high pressure, \(Kp\gg1\): \[ r\approx k. \] The surface is almost completely covered. Increasing the pressure produces essentially no further increase in coverage or rate, so the reaction is zero order.

The continuous transition can be expressed through the apparent order: \[ n=\frac{\mathrm d\ln r}{\mathrm d\ln p} =\frac{1}{1+Kp}. \]

2.3(d) — Maximum adsorbed volume

With the supplied identification \[ \theta=\frac{V_{\mathrm a}}{V_{\mathrm{a,max}}}, \] the Langmuir equation becomes \[ V_{\mathrm a} =V_{\mathrm{a,max}}\frac{Kp}{1+Kp}. \] Rearrangement gives the straight-line form \[ \boxed{ \frac{p}{V_{\mathrm a}} = \frac{1}{K V_{\mathrm{a,max}}} +\frac{p}{V_{\mathrm{a,max}}} }. \]

Thus a plot of \(p/V_{\mathrm a}\) against \(p\) has \[ \text{slope }m=\frac{1}{V_{\mathrm{a,max}}}, \qquad \text{intercept }b=\frac{1}{K V_{\mathrm{a,max}}}. \]

The graph’s abscissa is pressure in pascals, and its ordinate is \(p/V_{\mathrm a}\) in \(\mathrm{Pa\,cm^{-3}}\). Reading the drawn line approximately, \[ b\approx600\ \mathrm{Pa\,cm^{-3}}, \] and, using its ordinate near \(p=1000\ \mathrm{Pa}\), \[ m\approx \frac{(2500-600)\ \mathrm{Pa\,cm^{-3}}} {1000\ \mathrm{Pa}} =1.9\ \mathrm{cm^{-3}}. \]

Consequently, \[ V_{\mathrm{a,max}}=\frac{1}{m} \approx\frac{1}{1.9\ \mathrm{cm^{-3}}} =\boxed{0.53\ \mathrm{cm^3}}, \] and \[ K V_{\mathrm{a,max}}=\frac{1}{b} \approx\frac{1}{600\ \mathrm{Pa\,cm^{-3}}} =\boxed{1.7\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{cm^3\,Pa^{-1}}}. \]

These are graphical estimates for the second gas.

2.4 — Rate of carbon dioxide formation

The stipulated surface equilibrium is \[ \ce{CO(ads) + 1/2 O2(ads) <=> CO2(ads)}. \]

Using the mass-action interpretation of this equilibrium, its forward and reverse rates are \[ v_1=k_1\theta_{\ce{CO}}\theta_{\ce{O2}}^{1/2}, \qquad v_{-1}=k_{-1}\theta_{\ce{CO2}}. \] Because this step is fast compared with desorption, \[ k_1\theta_{\ce{CO}}\theta_{\ce{O2}}^{1/2} \approx k_{-1}\theta_{\ce{CO2}}, \] giving \[ \theta_{\ce{CO2}} = \frac{k_1}{k_{-1}} \theta_{\ce{CO}}\theta_{\ce{O2}}^{1/2}. \]

The slow step is \[ \ce{CO2(ads) -> CO2(g)}, \] so, in the same surface-coverage rate convention used in 2.3(c), \[ r=k_2\theta_{\ce{CO2}} =\frac{k_1k_2}{k_{-1}} \theta_{\ce{CO}}\theta_{\ce{O2}}^{1/2}. \]

Write the common competitive-adsorption denominator as \[ D=1+\sum_j K_jp_j. \] The supplied isotherm then gives \[ \theta_{\ce{CO}}=\frac{K_{\ce{CO}}p_{\ce{CO}}}{D}, \qquad \theta_{\ce{O2}}=\frac{K_{\ce{O2}}p_{\ce{O2}}}{D}. \] Substitution yields \[ \boxed{ r=\frac{k_1k_2}{k_{-1}}\, \frac{K_{\ce{CO}}p_{\ce{CO}} \sqrt{K_{\ce{O2}}p_{\ce{O2}}}} {D^{3/2}} }. \] The denominator exponent is \(1+\tfrac12=\tfrac32\).

For the reactant-only competitive Langmuir approximation, \[ \boxed{ r= \frac{k_1k_2}{k_{-1}}\, \frac{K_{\ce{CO}}p_{\ce{CO}} \sqrt{K_{\ce{O2}}p_{\ce{O2}}}} {\left(1+K_{\ce{CO}}p_{\ce{CO}} +K_{\ce{O2}}p_{\ce{O2}}\right)^{3/2}} }. \]

If the instruction “relevant gas components” includes competitive adsorption of gaseous carbon dioxide, the formal three-component expression instead is \[ \boxed{ r= \frac{k_1k_2}{k_{-1}}\, \frac{K_{\ce{CO}}p_{\ce{CO}} \sqrt{K_{\ce{O2}}p_{\ce{O2}}}} {\left(1+K_{\ce{CO}}p_{\ce{CO}} +K_{\ce{O2}}p_{\ce{O2}} +K_{\ce{CO2}}p_{\ce{CO2}}\right)^{3/2}} }. \] Setting the product-adsorption contribution to zero recovers the reactant-only expression.

The solution was checked against the official solution.