IChO 2003 · Theory problem 34

Aluminium

SECTION D: Inorganic Chemistry

PROBLEM 34 Aluminium

One of the largest factories in Greece, located near the ancient city of Delphi, produces alumina (\(\ce{Al2O3}\)) and aluminium metal using the mineral bauxite mined from the Parnassus mountain. Bauxite is a mixed aluminium oxide hydroxide – \(\ce{AlO_x(OH)_{3-2x}}\) where \(0<x<1\).

Production of \(\ce{Al}\) metal follows a two-stage process:

(i) Bayer process: Extraction, purification and dehydration of bauxite (typical compositions for industrially used bauxites are \(\ce{Al2O3}\) 40 – 60 %, \(\ce{H2O}\) 12 – 30 %, \(\ce{SiO2}\) free and combined 1 – 15 %, \(\ce{Fe2O3}\) 7 – 30 %, \(\ce{TiO2}\) 3 – 4 %, \(\ce{F}\), \(\ce{P2O5}\), \(\ce{V2O5}\), etc., 0.05 – 0.2 %). This involves dissolution in aqueous \(\ce{NaOH}\), separation from insoluble impurities, partial precipitation of the aluminium hydroxide and heating at \(1200\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\).

Complete and balance the following chemical reactions:

Figure 1

ii) Héroult-Hall process: Electrolysis of pure alumina dissolved in molten cryolite, \(\ce{Na3AlF6}\). Typical electrolyte composition ranges are \(\ce{Na3AlF6}\) (80 – 85 %), \(\ce{CaF2}\) (5 – 7 %), \(\ce{AlF3}\) (5 – 7 %), \(\ce{Al2O3}\) (2 – 8 % intermittently recharged). Electrolysis is carried out at \(940\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\), under constant pressure of 1 atm, in a carbon-lined steel cell (cathode) with carbon anodes. Balance the main reaction of the electrolysis:

Figure 2

Since cryolite is a rather rare mineral, it is prepared according to the following reaction.

Complete and balance this reaction:

Figure 3

During the electrolysis process several parallel reactions take place that degrade the graphite (\(\ce{C}\)) anodes or reduce the yield.

iii) By using the thermodynamic data given below, which are taken to be independent on temperature, determine the thermodynamic quantities \(\Delta H\), \(\Delta S\) and \(\Delta G\) at \(940\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\) for the reaction:

Figure 4
\(\ce{Al(s)}\) \(\ce{Al2O3(s)}\) \(\ce{C}\) (graphite) \(\ce{CO(g)}\) \(\ce{CO2(g)}\) \(\ce{O2(g)}\)
\(\Delta_f H^\circ\) (\(\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)) 0 −1676 0 −111 −394
\(S^\circ\) (\(\mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}\)) 28 51 6 198 214 205
\(\Delta_{\mathrm{fus}}H\) (\(\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)) 11 109

iv) At the same temperature and using the data from the table in part (iii) determine the quantities \(\Delta H\) and \(\Delta G\) for the reaction

Figure 5

given that \(\Delta S=-126\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}\). (Show your calculations)

v) Pure aluminium is a silvery-white metal with a face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure. Aluminium is readily soluble in hot concentrated hydrochloric acid producing the cation \(\ce{[Al(H2O)6]^3+}\), as well as in strong bases at room temperature producing hydrated tetrahydroxyaluminate anion, \(\ce{[Al(OH)4]^-(aq)}\). In both cases liberation of \(\ce{H2}\) occurs. \(\ce{AlF3}\) is made by treating \(\ce{Al2O3}\) with \(\ce{HF}\) gas at \(700\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\), while the other trihalides, \(\ce{AlX3}\), are made by the direct exothermic reaction of \(\ce{Al}\) with the corresponding dihalogen. Write all 4 chemical reactions described above.

vi) The \(\ce{AlCl3}\) is a crystalline solid having a layer lattice with 6-coordinate \(\ce{Al(III)}\), but at the melting point (\(192.4\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\)) the structure changes to a 4-coordinate molecular dimer, \(\ce{Al2Cl6}\). The covalently bonded molecular dimer, in the gas phase and at high temperature, dissociates into trigonal planar \(\ce{AlCl3}\) molecules.

For the molecular dimer \(\ce{Al2Cl6}\), in the gas phase, two different \(\ce{Al-Cl}\) distances (206 and 221 pm) were measured. Draw the stereostructure of the dimer, and write down the corresponding \(\ce{Al-Cl}\) distances.

vii) What is the hybridization of the \(\ce{Al}\) atom(s) in \(\ce{Al2Cl6}\) and \(\ce{AlCl3}\)?

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

Thermodynamic quantities below are per mole of reaction as written, at \(T=1213.15\ \mathrm{K}\). Molecular and ionic names and SMILES are supplied in the corresponding solution parts.

  • (i) The balanced reactions, with calcium silicate precipitation written in net ionic form, are: \[ \ce{Al2O3 + 2OH^- + 7H2O -> 2[Al(OH)4(H2O)2]^-} \] \[ \ce{SiO2 + 2OH^- -> SiO2(OH)2^{2-}} \] \[ \ce{SiO2(OH)2^{2-} + Ca^{2+} -> CaSiO3 v + H2O} \] \[ \ce{[Al(OH)4(H2O)2]^- -> Al(OH)3 v + OH^- + 2H2O} \] \[ \ce{2Al(OH)3 -> Al2O3 + 3H2O} \]

  • (ii) Electrolysis: \[ \ce{2Al2O3(l) + 3C(s) -> 4Al(l) + 3CO2(g)} \] Cryolite preparation: \[ \ce{6HF + Al(OH)3 + 3NaOH -> Na3AlF6 + 6H2O} \]

  • (iii) \[ \boxed{\Delta H=+172\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}},\quad \Delta S=+176\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}},\quad \Delta G\approx-41.5\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}} \]

  • (iv) \[ \boxed{\Delta H=-740\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}},\qquad \Delta G\approx-587\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}} \]

  • (v) The four reaction types are: \[ \ce{2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) + 12H2O(l) -> 2[Al(H2O)6]^3+(aq) + 3H2(g)} \] \[ \ce{2Al(s) + 2OH^-(aq) + 6H2O(l) -> 2[Al(OH)4]^-(aq) + 3H2(g)} \] \[ \ce{Al2O3(s) + 6HF(g) -> 2AlF3(s) + 3H2O(g)} \] \[ \ce{2Al + 3X2 -> 2AlX3}, \qquad X=\ce{Cl},\ce{Br},\ce{I}. \]

  • (vi) Aluminium chloride dimer, \(\ce{Al2Cl6}\), has two bridging and four terminal chlorine atoms. Each aluminium is approximately tetrahedral: \[ \boxed{d(\ce{Al-Cl_{terminal}})=206\ \mathrm{pm},\qquad d(\ce{Al-Cl_{bridging}})=221\ \mathrm{pm}.} \] Dative-bond SMILES: Cl[Al]1(Cl)<-Cl[Al](Cl)(Cl)<-Cl1.

  • (vii) In the conventional hybridization model: \[ \boxed{\ce{Al2Cl6}:\ \mathrm{sp^3}\text{ at each aluminium};\qquad \ce{AlCl3}\text{ monomer}:\ \mathrm{sp^2}.} \]

Solution

Coordination compounds below use dative-bond SMILES, with donor-to-acceptor arrows. These specify connectivity; their spatial coordination geometries are described separately. Extended solids, including alumina, silica, aluminium hydroxide, calcium silicate, solid aluminium fluoride, graphite and metallic aluminium, do not have a single molecular SMILES.

(i) Bayer process

Alumina is amphoteric: it dissolves in hydroxide solution to form the soluble aluminate complex. Two aluminium atoms require two product anions, so charge balance requires two hydroxide ions. Oxygen and hydrogen balance then require seven water molecules: \[ \ce{Al2O3 + 2OH^- + 7H2O -> 2[Al(OH)4(H2O)2]^-}. \] There are 12 oxygen atoms, 16 hydrogen atoms and total charge \(-2\) on each side.

Silica is an acidic oxide. Addition of two hydroxide ions gives the specified doubly charged silicate: \[ \ce{SiO2 + 2OH^- -> SiO2(OH)2^{2-}}. \]

Calcium ions remove this dissolved silicate by precipitation: \[ \ce{SiO2(OH)2^{2-} + Ca^{2+} -> CaSiO3 v + H2O}. \] If calcium is supplied as calcium hydroxide, the equivalent reagent equation is \[ \ce{SiO2(OH)2^{2-} + Ca(OH)2 -> CaSiO3 v + 2OH^- + H2O}. \] Thus lime addition also regenerates hydroxide.

Partial precipitation of aluminium hydroxide releases one hydroxide ion and the two coordinated water molecules: \[ \ce{[Al(OH)4(H2O)2]^- -> Al(OH)3 v + OH^- + 2H2O}. \]

Finally, heating dehydrates the hydroxide: \[ \ce{2Al(OH)3 -> Al2O3 + 3H2O}. \]

The relevant molecular and ionic identifiers are:

Species Name SMILES
\(\ce{H2O}\) Water O
\(\ce{OH^-}\) Hydroxide ion [OH-]
\(\ce{[Al(OH)4(H2O)2]^-}\) Diaquatetrahydroxidoaluminate(III) ion [Al+3](<-[OH-])(<-[OH-])(<-[OH-])(<-[OH-])(<-[OH2])<-[OH2]
\(\ce{SiO2(OH)2^{2-}}\) Dihydrogen orthosilicate ion [O-][Si]([O-])(O)O
\(\ce{Ca^{2+}}\) Calcium(II) ion [Ca+2]

The hydrated aluminate has six oxygen donors around aluminium, corresponding to octahedral coordination; the problem does not specify a cis/trans arrangement of the water ligands. The silicate has tetrahedral coordination around silicon. Calcium hydroxide has ionic formula-unit SMILES [Ca+2].[OH-].[OH-].

(ii) Electrolysis and cryolite preparation

In electrolysis, each aluminium atom changes from oxidation state \(+3\) to \(0\), accepting three electrons. Each carbon atom changes from \(0\) to \(+4\) in carbon dioxide, releasing four electrons. The smallest common electron count is twelve, requiring four aluminium atoms and three carbon atoms: \[ \ce{2Al2O3(l) + 3C(s) -> 4Al(l) + 3CO2(g)}. \] This also balances all six oxygen atoms.

One formula unit of cryolite requires one aluminium, three sodium atoms and six fluorine atoms. Therefore the reactants must include one aluminium hydroxide, three sodium hydroxides and six hydrogen fluorides. Their remaining hydrogen and oxygen form six waters: \[ \ce{6HF + Al(OH)3 + 3NaOH -> Na3AlF6 + 6H2O}. \]

Hydrogen fluoride has SMILES F; carbon dioxide has SMILES O=C=O.

Cryolite is sodium hexafluoridoaluminate(III). Its ionic constituents are three sodium ions, [Na+], and one hexafluoridoaluminate(III) ion, \(\ce{[AlF6]^3-}\), with dative-bond SMILES [Al+3](<-[F-])(<-[F-])(<-[F-])(<-[F-])(<-[F-])<-[F-]. The six fluorine donors form an octahedral coordination sphere. Sodium hydroxide has ionic formula-unit SMILES [Na+].[OH-].

(iii) Reaction of graphite with carbon dioxide

For \[ \ce{C(graphite) + CO2(g) -> 2CO(g)}, \] the reaction enthalpy is the sum of product formation enthalpies minus that of the reactants: \[ \begin{aligned} \Delta H &=2\Delta_fH^\circ(\ce{CO}) -\left[\Delta_fH^\circ(\ce{C})+\Delta_fH^\circ(\ce{CO2})\right]\\ &=2(-111)-[0+(-394)]\\ &=\boxed{+172\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}}. \end{aligned} \]

Similarly, \[ \begin{aligned} \Delta S &=2S^\circ(\ce{CO}) -\left[S^\circ(\ce{C})+S^\circ(\ce{CO2})\right]\\ &=2(198)-(6+214)\\ &=\boxed{+176\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}}. \end{aligned} \]

The temperature is \[ T=940+273.15=1213.15\ \mathrm{K}. \] Converting entropy to \(\mathrm{kJ\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}\), \[ \begin{aligned} \Delta G&=\Delta H-T\Delta S\\ &=172-(1213.15)(0.176)\\ &=-41.5144\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\\ &\approx\boxed{-41.5\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}}. \end{aligned} \]

The reaction is endothermic, but its positive entropy change—consistent with increasing the amount of gas from one to two moles—makes its standard Gibbs energy negative at this temperature. It therefore provides a thermodynamically favorable route for consuming the graphite anodes.

Carbon monoxide has SMILES [C-]#[O+]; carbon dioxide has SMILES O=C=O.

(iv) Oxidation of liquid aluminium by carbon dioxide

The reaction is \[ \ce{2Al(l) + 3CO2(g) -> Al2O3(l) + 3CO(g)}. \]

The formation enthalpies in the table refer to solid aluminium and solid alumina. Within the problem’s temperature-independent approximation, the required liquid-state enthalpies are \[ \Delta_fH(\ce{Al(l)})=0+11=11\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}, \] and \[ \Delta_fH(\ce{Al2O3(l)}) =-1676+109=-1567\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}. \]

Consequently, \[ \begin{aligned} \Delta H &=\left[-1567+3(-111)\right] -\left[2(11)+3(-394)\right]\\ &=-1900-(-1160)\\ &=\boxed{-740\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}}. \end{aligned} \]

Equivalently, the solid-state reaction enthalpy is \(-827\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\), and the net fusion correction is \[ 109-2(11)=87\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}, \] giving \(-827+87=-740\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\).

Using the supplied reaction entropy, \[ \Delta S=-126\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}} =-0.126\ \mathrm{kJ\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}, \] we obtain \[ \begin{aligned} \Delta G &=-740-(1213.15)(-0.126)\\ &=-587.1431\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\\ &\approx\boxed{-587\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}}. \end{aligned} \]

This strongly favorable standard Gibbs energy explains how contact with carbon dioxide can reoxidize the aluminium product and lower its yield.

(v) Reactions of aluminium and preparation of its halides

In acid, two aluminium atoms lose six electrons in total, while six hydrogen ions are reduced to three hydrogen molecules. Twelve water molecules provide the six aqua ligands on each aluminium: \[ \ce{2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) + 12H2O(l) -> 2[Al(H2O)6]^3+(aq) + 3H2(g)}. \] Chloride is a spectator ion in this net ionic equation.

In base, aluminium is again oxidized to \(+3\), but the product is tetrahydroxidoaluminate: \[ \ce{2Al(s) + 2OH^-(aq) + 6H2O(l) -> 2[Al(OH)4]^-(aq) + 3H2(g)}. \] Both sides contain two aluminium atoms, eight oxygen atoms, fourteen hydrogen atoms and total charge \(-2\).

Treatment of alumina with hydrogen fluoride at \(700\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\) is an acid–base conversion with no change in aluminium’s oxidation state: \[ \ce{Al2O3(s) + 6HF(g) -> 2AlF3(s) + 3H2O(g)}. \] Six hydrogen fluorides supply the six fluorines for two aluminium fluorides and the six hydrogens for three waters.

For chlorine, bromine and iodine, direct combination is a redox reaction: \[ \ce{2Al + 3X2 -> 2AlX3}, \qquad X=\ce{Cl},\ce{Br},\ce{I}. \] Two aluminium atoms release six electrons, and the six halogen atoms each accept one.

Additional molecular and ionic identifiers are:

Species Name SMILES
\(\ce{HCl}\) Hydrogen chloride; its aqueous solution is hydrochloric acid Cl
\(\ce{H+}\) Hydrogen ion, used as the aqueous acid notation [H+]
\(\ce{Cl^-}\) Chloride ion [Cl-]
\(\ce{H2}\) Hydrogen [H][H]
\(\ce{[Al(H2O)6]^3+}\) Hexaaquaaluminium(III) ion [Al+3](<-[OH2])(<-[OH2])(<-[OH2])(<-[OH2])(<-[OH2])<-[OH2]
\(\ce{[Al(OH)4]^-}\) Tetrahydroxidoaluminate(III) ion [Al+3](<-[OH-])(<-[OH-])(<-[OH-])<-[OH-]
\(\ce{Cl2}\) Chlorine ClCl
\(\ce{Br2}\) Bromine BrBr
\(\ce{I2}\) Iodine II

Hexaaquaaluminium(III) is octahedral, whereas tetrahydroxidoaluminate(III) is tetrahedral. Aqueous hydrogen ions are solvated; [H+] is the conventional shorthand used in the net ionic equation.

The trihalide monomer connectivities are aluminium chloride Cl[Al](Cl)Cl, aluminium bromide Br[Al](Br)Br and aluminium iodide I[Al](I)I. These strings alone do not specify aggregation into dimers or condensed-phase structures.

(vi) Structure and bond lengths of the dimer

An isolated aluminium chloride monomer has only six electrons in aluminium’s valence shell. Dimerization allows one chlorine from each monomer to donate a lone pair to the other aluminium, forming two chlorine bridges. Each aluminium then has four chlorine neighbours: two terminal and two bridging.

The aluminium chloride dimer has dative-bond SMILES: Cl[Al]1(Cl)<-Cl[Al](Cl)(Cl)<-Cl1.

The requested stereostructure should be drawn as follows:

  1. Place the two aluminium atoms at the left and right vertices of a diamond, with the two bridging chlorines at its upper and lower vertices. Join each bridging chlorine to both aluminium atoms. This gives a planar, four-membered central ring.
  2. Attach two terminal chlorines to each aluminium, directed outward from the ring: one on a solid wedge toward the viewer and one on a dashed wedge away from the viewer.
  3. Label all four terminal bonds 206 pm and all four aluminium-to-bridging-chlorine bonds 221 pm. There is no direct aluminium–aluminium bond.

This is two distorted coordination tetrahedra sharing the edge defined by the two bridging chlorines. The bridging contacts are longer than the terminal bonds because each bridging chlorine participates in bonding to two aluminium centres.

The donor arrows in the SMILES are a bonding-bookkeeping representation; they do not imply different lengths for the four symmetry-equivalent bridge contacts.

(vii) Hybridization

In the dimer, each aluminium has four approximately tetrahedrally arranged bonding directions. The conventional assignment is therefore \[ \boxed{\mathrm{sp^3}}. \]

The gaseous aluminium chloride monomer, Cl[Al](Cl)Cl, has three coplanar bonds with approximately \(120^\circ\) bond angles. Its conventional assignment is \[ \boxed{\mathrm{sp^2}}, \] with an empty \(p\) orbital perpendicular to the molecular plane.

These assignments concern the molecular dimer and monomer described in part (vi), rather than the six-coordinate aluminium sites in the crystalline solid.

The solution was checked against the official solution. Where this solution differs from the official solution, the official solution contains an error or a misprint.