IChO 2001 · Theory problem 3

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Figure 1

J.W.Gibbs (1839 –1903)

The second law of thermodynamics is a fundamental law of science. In this problem we consider the thermodynamics of an ideal gas, phase transitions and chemical equilibrium.

3.00 mol of \(\ce{CO2}\) gas expands isothermically (in thermal contact with the surroundings; temperature = 15 °C) against a fixed external pressure of 1.00 bar. The initial and final volumes of the gas are 10.0 dm³ and 30.0 dm³, respectively.

3.1 Choose the correct option for change in the entropy of the system \((\Delta S_{\mathrm{sys}})\) and of the surroundings \((\Delta S_{\mathrm{sur}})\):

\(\Delta S_{\mathrm{sys}}\) \(\Delta S_{\mathrm{sur}}\)
(a) \(>0\) \(=0\) ☐
(b) \(<0\) \(>0\) ☐
(c) \(>0\) \(<0\) ☐
d) \(=0\) \(=0\) ☐

(Mark X in the correct box.)

3.2 Calculate \(\Delta S_{\mathrm{sys}}\) assuming \(\ce{CO2}\) to be an ideal gas.

3.3 Calculate \(\Delta S_{\mathrm{sur}}\).

3.4 Calculate the change in entropy of the universe.

Does your answer agree with the Second Law of Thermodynamics?

(Mark X in the correct box.)

☐ Yes ☐ No

The pressure – temperature phase diagram of \(\ce{CO2}\) is given below schematically. The diagram is not to scale.

Figure 2

Phase diagram of \(\ce{CO2}\)

3.5 \(\ce{CO2}\) gas, initially at a pressure of 4.0 bar and temperature of 10.0 °C is cooled at constant pressure. In this process,

(a) it goes first to the liquid phase and then to the solid phase. ☐

(b) it goes to the solid phase without going through the liquid phase. ☐

3.6 Starting with the same pressure and temperature as above (in 3.5), \(\ce{CO2}\) is compressed isothermatically. In this process,

(a) it goes first to the liquid phase and then to the solid phase. ☐

(b) it goes to the solid phase without going through the liquid phase. ☐

3.7 From the data given in the phase diagram, calculate the molar enthalpy change of sublimation of \(\ce{CO2}\). Write down the formula used.

3.8 \(\ce{CO}\) gas, used extensively in organic synthesis, can be obtained by reacting \(\ce{CO2}\) gas with graphite. Use the data given below to show that the equilibrium constant at 298.15 K is less than unity.

At 298.15 K

\(\Delta H_f^0\ /\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\) \(S^0\ /\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}\)
\(\ce{CO2(g)}\) −393.51 213.79
\(\ce{CO(g)}\) −110.53 197.66
\(\ce{C(graphite)}\) 5.74

3.9 Estimate the temperature at which the reaction would have an equilibrium constant equal to 1. Ignore slight variations in the thermodynamic data with temperature.

3.10 The reaction above (in 3.8) is carried out between \(\ce{CO2}\) and excess hot graphite in a reactor maintained at about 800 °C and a total pressure of 5.0 bar. The equilibrium constant \(K_p\) under these conditions is 10.0. Calculate the partial pressure of \(\ce{CO}\) at equilibrium.

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 3.1: (c): \(\Delta S_{\mathrm{sys}}>0\), \(\Delta S_{\mathrm{sur}}<0\). Mark X in box (c).
  • 3.2: \(\boxed{\Delta S_{\mathrm{sys}}=+27.4\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}}}\).
  • 3.3: \(\boxed{\Delta S_{\mathrm{sur}}=-6.94\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}}}\).
  • 3.4: \(\boxed{\Delta S_{\mathrm{univ}}=+20.5\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}}}\). Mark X in Yes.
  • 3.5: (b): carbon dioxide (O=C=O) passes directly from gas to solid.
  • 3.6: (a): gas → liquid → solid, with sufficiently large compression.
  • 3.7: \(\boxed{\Delta_{\mathrm{sub}}H_m\approx+26.2\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}}\), using \[ \ln\!\left(\frac{P_2}{P_1}\right) =\frac{\Delta_{\mathrm{sub}}H_m}{R} \left(\frac1{T_1}-\frac1{T_2}\right). \]
  • 3.8: \(\boxed{\Delta_{\mathrm r}G^\circ=+120.04\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}}\), giving \(\boxed{K\approx9.31\times10^{-22}<1}\).
  • 3.9: \(\boxed{T\approx981\ \mathrm K\approx708\,^\circ\mathrm C}\).
  • 3.10: Carbon monoxide ([C-]#[O+]): \(\boxed{p_{\ce{CO}}=3.66\ \mathrm{bar}\approx3.7\ \mathrm{bar}}\).

Solution

The molecular species used throughout are carbon dioxide, \(\ce{CO2}\), SMILES O=C=O, and carbon monoxide, \(\ce{CO}\), SMILES [C-]#[O+]. Graphite is an extended carbon lattice and has no single finite molecular SMILES.

Use \(R=8.314\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}}\) and \(1\ \mathrm{bar\,dm^3}=100\ \mathrm J\).

3.1

An isothermal expansion increases the entropy of an ideal gas because its accessible volume increases.

The gas performs work against the external pressure. Its internal energy remains constant at constant temperature, so it absorbs heat from the surroundings. The surroundings therefore lose entropy.

Thus, \[ \Delta S_{\mathrm{sys}}>0,\qquad \Delta S_{\mathrm{sur}}<0. \]

Mark X in box (c).

3.2

Entropy is a state function, so the system’s entropy change can be calculated along a reversible isothermal path between the specified initial and final states:

\[ \Delta S_{\mathrm{sys}} =\int_{V_i}^{V_f}\frac{\delta q_{\mathrm{rev}}}{T} =\int_{V_i}^{V_f}\frac{nR}{V}\,dV =nR\ln\!\left(\frac{V_f}{V_i}\right). \]

Therefore, \[ \begin{aligned} \Delta S_{\mathrm{sys}} &=(3.00\ \mathrm{mol}) (8.314\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}}) \ln\!\left(\frac{30.0}{10.0}\right)\\ &=\boxed{+27.4\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}}}. \end{aligned} \]

The actual expansion is irreversible; its actual heat divided by the temperature is not the system’s entropy change.

3.3

Using the convention that \(w\) is work done on the gas, \[ w=-P_{\mathrm{ext}}(V_f-V_i). \]

Thus, \[ \begin{aligned} w &=-(1.00\ \mathrm{bar})(30.0-10.0)\ \mathrm{dm^3}\\ &=-20.0\ \mathrm{bar\,dm^3}\\ &=-2.00\times10^3\ \mathrm J. \end{aligned} \]

For an ideal gas, internal energy depends only on temperature. Since the expansion is isothermal, \[ \Delta U=q_{\mathrm{sys}}+w=0, \] and hence \[ q_{\mathrm{sys}}=-w=+2.00\times10^3\ \mathrm J. \]

The surroundings supply this heat at the constant temperature \[ T_{\mathrm{sur}}=15+273.15=288.15\ \mathrm K. \]

Consequently, \[ \Delta S_{\mathrm{sur}} =\frac{q_{\mathrm{sur}}}{T_{\mathrm{sur}}} =-\frac{q_{\mathrm{sys}}}{T_{\mathrm{sur}}} =\frac{-2.00\times10^3}{288.15} =\boxed{-6.94\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}}}. \]

3.4

The entropy change of the universe is the sum of the system and surroundings contributions:

\[ \begin{aligned} \Delta S_{\mathrm{univ}} &=\Delta S_{\mathrm{sys}}+\Delta S_{\mathrm{sur}}\\ &=27.4016-6.94083\\ &=\boxed{+20.5\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}}}. \end{aligned} \]

This positive value agrees with the second law and indicates entropy production in the irreversible expansion. Mark X in Yes.

3.5

The pressure \(4.0\ \mathrm{bar}\) is below the triple-point pressure, \(5.18\ \mathrm{bar}\). There is therefore no stable liquid phase along this constant-pressure cooling path.

Moving leftward at \(4.0\ \mathrm{bar}\) on the phase diagram crosses the gas–solid boundary. Carbon dioxide deposits directly as a solid:

\[ \ce{CO2(g) -> CO2(s)}. \]

Mark X in box (b).

3.6

The temperature \(10.0\,^\circ\mathrm C\) lies above the triple-point temperature, \(-56.6\,^\circ\mathrm C\), and below the critical temperature, \(31.0\,^\circ\mathrm C\).

Increasing pressure at this fixed temperature first crosses the vapour–liquid boundary, so the gas condenses. With sufficiently large further compression, the positively sloping solid–liquid boundary is crossed and the liquid solidifies:

\[ \ce{CO2(g) -> CO2(l) -> CO2(s)}. \]

Mark X in box (a).

3.7

The sublimation process is \[ \ce{CO2(s) -> CO2(g)}. \]

Approximate the vapour as an ideal gas, neglect the solid’s molar volume compared with the vapour’s, and take the sublimation enthalpy as constant over the temperature interval. The integrated Clausius–Clapeyron equation is then

\[ \ln\!\left(\frac{P_2}{P_1}\right) =-\frac{\Delta_{\mathrm{sub}}H_m}{R} \left(\frac1{T_2}-\frac1{T_1}\right). \]

The two points on the solid–vapour equilibrium curve are \[ P_1=1.01\ \mathrm{bar},\qquad T_1=-78.5+273.15=194.65\ \mathrm K, \] \[ P_2=5.18\ \mathrm{bar},\qquad T_2=-56.6+273.15=216.55\ \mathrm K. \]

Therefore, \[ \begin{aligned} \Delta_{\mathrm{sub}}H_m &=\frac{R\ln(P_2/P_1)}{1/T_1-1/T_2}\\ &=\frac{ (8.314\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}}) \ln(5.18/1.01) }{ (1/194.65-1/216.55)\ \mathrm{K^{-1}} }\\ &=2.6161\times10^4\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}}. \end{aligned} \]

Thus, \[ \boxed{\Delta_{\mathrm{sub}}H_m\approx+26.2\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}}. \]

The positive sign corresponds to heat absorption during sublimation.

3.8

The balanced reaction is \[ \ce{CO2(g) + C(graphite) <=> 2CO(g)}. \]

Graphite is the standard state of elemental carbon, so its standard enthalpy of formation is zero. The standard reaction enthalpy is

\[ \begin{aligned} \Delta_{\mathrm r}H^\circ &=2\Delta_fH^\circ(\ce{CO}) -\Delta_fH^\circ(\ce{CO2}) -\Delta_fH^\circ(\ce{C(graphite)})\\ &=2(-110.53)-(-393.51)-0\\ &=\boxed{+172.45\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}}. \end{aligned} \]

The standard reaction entropy is

\[ \begin{aligned} \Delta_{\mathrm r}S^\circ &=2S^\circ(\ce{CO}) -S^\circ(\ce{CO2}) -S^\circ(\ce{C(graphite)})\\ &=2(197.66)-213.79-5.74\\ &=\boxed{+175.79\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}}. \end{aligned} \]

At \(298.15\ \mathrm K\), \[ \begin{aligned} \Delta_{\mathrm r}G^\circ &=\Delta_{\mathrm r}H^\circ-T\Delta_{\mathrm r}S^\circ\\ &=172.45-(298.15)(0.17579)\\ &=\boxed{+120.04\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}}. \end{aligned} \]

Since \[ \Delta_{\mathrm r}G^\circ=-RT\ln K, \] a positive standard reaction Gibbs energy implies \(K<1\). Numerically, \[ \ln K =-\frac{120038.2}{(8.314)(298.15)} =-48.4256, \] so \[ \boxed{K\approx9.31\times10^{-22}<1}. \]

3.9

When \(K=1\), \[ \Delta_{\mathrm r}G^\circ=-RT\ln1=0. \]

Ignoring the temperature dependence of the reaction enthalpy and entropy, \[ 0=\Delta_{\mathrm r}H^\circ-T\Delta_{\mathrm r}S^\circ, \] and therefore \[ \begin{aligned} T &=\frac{\Delta_{\mathrm r}H^\circ}{\Delta_{\mathrm r}S^\circ}\\ &=\frac{172450\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}}} {175.79\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}}\\ &=\boxed{981\ \mathrm K}. \end{aligned} \]

In degrees Celsius, \[ \boxed{t\approx708\,^\circ\mathrm C}. \]

3.10

For \[ \ce{CO2(g) + C(graphite) <=> 2CO(g)}, \] the activity of the pure graphite is unity. Using ideal-gas partial pressures and \(p^\circ=1\ \mathrm{bar}\),

\[ K_p =\frac{(p_{\ce{CO}}/p^\circ)^2} {p_{\ce{CO2}}/p^\circ} =\frac{p_{\ce{CO}}^2}{p_{\ce{CO2}}p^\circ}. \]

The gas contains only carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, so \[ p_{\ce{CO}}+p_{\ce{CO2}}=5.0\ \mathrm{bar}. \]

Let \(x=p_{\ce{CO}}/p^\circ\). Then \(p_{\ce{CO2}}/p^\circ=5.0-x\), and the supplied equilibrium constant gives \[ 10.0=\frac{x^2}{5.0-x}. \]

Rearrangement yields \[ x^2+10.0x-50.0=0. \]

The physically admissible root is \[ x=\frac{-10.0+\sqrt{10.0^2+4(50.0)}}{2} =3.66025. \]

Thus, \[ \boxed{p_{\ce{CO}}=3.66\ \mathrm{bar}\approx3.7\ \mathrm{bar}}. \]

The corresponding carbon dioxide partial pressure is \(1.34\ \mathrm{bar}\), and these values satisfy both the total pressure and the equilibrium expression.

The solution was checked against the official solution.