IChO 1996 · Theory problem 3

Avogadro's number from the decay of radium

In 1908 Rutherford together with H.Geiger measured the rate of emission of \(\alpha\)-particles (\(x\)) by radium (in the nature this element is represented by a single nuclide \(\ce{^{226}_{88}Ra}\)) and found that 1.00 g of radium emits \(x = 3.42\times10^{10}\) \(\alpha\) - particles per second.

In 1911 Rutherford and American physical chemist B.Boltwood measured the rate of formation of helium from radium. This experiment permits to obtain the most accurate value of Avogadro’s number available at that time, given that the value of molar volume of ideal gas was well established. To achieve this goal a sample of radium salt purified from decay products and containing \(m = 192\) mg of \(\ce{Ra}\) was put into a device and the volume of the evolved helium was measured. After 83 days (\(t = 83.0\) days) of the experiment 6.58 \(\mathrm{mm^3}\) of \(\ce{He}\) was collected (\(V_{\mathrm{He}} = 6.58\ \mathrm{mm^3}\) corrected to \(0^\circ\mathrm{C}\) and 1 atm).

To understand the results of this experiment we shall need the kinetic scheme of radioactive decay of \(\ce{Ra}\) which is given below (half-lives are over the arrows, the type of decay is below the arrows).

Figure 1

(RaA - RaE are intermediate products of radon decay).

3.1 Write the first six radioactive decays using a modern notation showing atomic and mass numbers of all nuclei involved.

As a rough first approximation half-lives of all radium decay products, except those of RaD and \(\ce{Po}\), may be assumed to be negligible compared to the time of measurement \(t\). Using this approximation perform the following calculations.

3.2 a) How many helium atoms were formed from each decayed radium atom after 83 days?

b) How many helium atoms were formed in total during the experiment?

3.3 Calculate an approximate value of Avogadro’s number from the above data.

For a more accurate computation of Avogadro’s number the half-life of radon \(T_{1/2}(\ce{Rn}) = 3.83\) days cannot be neglected as it is comparable with the duration of experiment \(t\) and not all of radon atoms decayed to the end of experiment.

3.4 Choose which of the plots given below displays the time dependence of the number \(N_{\mathrm{Rn}}\) of radon atoms in the course of the experiment.

Figure 2

3.5 Choose which of the plots given below shows the time dependence of the volume of helium in the course of the experiment.

Figure 3

3.6 Choose the relation between the decay rate \(k\) of any given nuclide and its half-life \(T_{1/2}\).

3.7 a) Using a short kinetic scheme

Figure 4

(where \(k_1\) and \(k_2\) are the rate constants of the corresponding reactions) and the plot which you have selected in question 4, write a relation between the number of radon atoms at the end of experiment \(N'_{\mathrm{Rn}}\) and the number of radium atoms \(N_{\mathrm{Ra}}\).

b) Calculate \(N'_{\mathrm{Rn}}\) using the rate of radium decay given above (\(x = 3.42\times10^{10}\) \(\alpha\)-particles per gram of radium per second).

3.8 How many helium atoms could be formed from radon atoms remaining at the end of experiment \(N'_{\mathrm{Rn}}\), if all these atoms had decayed to RaD?

3.9 Using the solutions of the above questions calculate a better approximation to:

a) the number of helium atoms formed;

b) the Avogadro’s number.

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 3.1: The first six decays are \(\alpha,\alpha,\alpha,\beta^-,\beta^-,\alpha\), producing successively \(\ce{^{222}_{86}Rn}\), \(\ce{^{218}_{84}Po}\), \(\ce{^{214}_{82}Pb}\), \(\ce{^{214}_{83}Bi}\), \(\ce{^{214}_{84}Po}\), and \(\ce{^{210}_{82}Pb}\). The balanced equations are given below.
  • 3.2(a): \(4\) helium atoms per decayed radium atom.
  • 3.2(b): \(1.88\times10^{17}\) helium atoms.
  • 3.3: \(N_{\mathrm A}\approx6.41\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}\).
  • 3.4: Plot C.
  • 3.5: Plot F.
  • 3.6: \(k=\ln 2/T_{1/2}\).
  • 3.7(a): \(k_1N_{\mathrm{Ra}}\approx k_2N'_{\mathrm{Rn}}\), hence \(N'_{\mathrm{Rn}}\approx(k_1/k_2)N_{\mathrm{Ra}}\).
  • 3.7(b): \(N'_{\mathrm{Rn}}=3.13\times10^{15}\) radon atoms.
  • 3.8: \(3N'_{\mathrm{Rn}}=9.40\times10^{15}\) additional helium atoms.
  • 3.9(a): \(1.79\times10^{17}\) helium atoms.
  • 3.9(b): \(N_{\mathrm A}\approx6.09\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}\).

The numerical Avogadro constants use \(V_m=22.4\ \mathrm{L\,mol^{-1}}\) at \(0^\circ\mathrm C\) and 1 atm.

Solution

3.1 — The first six radioactive decays

In an \(\alpha\)-decay, the mass number decreases by four and the atomic number decreases by two. In a \(\beta^-\)-decay, the mass number remains unchanged and the atomic number increases by one. Applying these rules successively gives:

Historical designation Modern nuclide Name
Ra \(\ce{^{226}_{88}Ra}\) Radium-226
Rn \(\ce{^{222}_{86}Rn}\) Radon-222
RaA \(\ce{^{218}_{84}Po}\) Polonium-218
RaB \(\ce{^{214}_{82}Pb}\) Lead-214
RaC \(\ce{^{214}_{83}Bi}\) Bismuth-214
RaC′ \(\ce{^{214}_{84}Po}\) Polonium-214
RaD \(\ce{^{210}_{82}Pb}\) Lead-210

The balanced nuclear equations are

\[ \ce{^{226}_{88}Ra -> ^{222}_{86}Rn + ^{4}_{2}He}, \]

\[ \ce{^{222}_{86}Rn -> ^{218}_{84}Po + ^{4}_{2}He}, \]

\[ \ce{^{218}_{84}Po -> ^{214}_{82}Pb + ^{4}_{2}He}, \]

\[ \ce{^{214}_{82}Pb -> ^{214}_{83}Bi + ^{0}_{-1}e} +\bar{\nu}_e, \]

\[ \ce{^{214}_{83}Bi -> ^{214}_{84}Po + ^{0}_{-1}e} +\bar{\nu}_e, \]

\[ \ce{^{214}_{84}Po -> ^{210}_{82}Pb + ^{4}_{2}He}. \]

Here \(\bar{\nu}_e\) is an electron antineutrino. Each equation conserves mass number and electric charge.

An \(\alpha\)-particle is a helium-4 nucleus, \(\ce{^{4}He^{2+}}\), SMILES [4He+2]. After acquiring two electrons, it becomes a neutral helium-4 atom, \(\ce{^{4}He}\), SMILES [4He]. Thus each emitted \(\alpha\)-particle contributes one collected helium atom.

3.2(a) — Helium atoms per decayed radium atom

Under the first approximation, the transformations from radium to RaD occur effectively immediately. There are four \(\alpha\)-decays along this part of the chain:

  • Radium-226 to radon-222.
  • Radon-222 to polonium-218.
  • Polonium-218 to lead-214.
  • Polonium-214 to lead-210.

RaD has a half-life of 27.1 years, much longer than 83 days, so further decay is neglected at this accuracy. Consequently,

\[ \boxed{4\text{ helium atoms per decayed radium atom}.} \]

3.2(b) — Total helium atoms in the first approximation

The radium half-life exceeds 1500 years, so its activity is effectively constant during 83 days. The sample’s radium decay rate is

\[ R=mx =(0.192\ \mathrm g) (3.42\times10^{10}\ \mathrm{g^{-1}s^{-1}}) =6.5664\times10^9\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}. \]

The duration is

\[ t=83.0\times24\times3600 =7.1712\times10^6\ \mathrm s. \]

The number of radium atoms that decay is therefore

\[ D=Rt =(6.5664\times10^9)(7.1712\times10^6) =4.708896768\times10^{16}. \]

Multiplying by four,

\[ N_{\mathrm{He}}^{(0)}=4D =1.8835587072\times10^{17}, \]

or, to three significant figures,

\[ \boxed{N_{\mathrm{He}}^{(0)}=1.88\times10^{17}\text{ atoms}.} \]

3.3 — First approximation to Avogadro’s number

Using the standard ideal-gas molar volume at the stated conditions,

\[ V_m=22.4\ \mathrm{L\,mol^{-1}}, \qquad V_{\mathrm{He}}=6.58\ \mathrm{mm^3} =6.58\times10^{-6}\ \mathrm L. \]

The collected amount of helium is

\[ n_{\mathrm{He}} =\frac{V_{\mathrm{He}}}{V_m} =\frac{6.58\times10^{-6}}{22.4} =2.9375\times10^{-7}\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

Hence

\[ N_{\mathrm A}^{(0)} =\frac{N_{\mathrm{He}}^{(0)}}{n_{\mathrm{He}}} =\frac{1.8835587072\times10^{17}} {2.9375\times10^{-7}} =\boxed{6.41\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}}. \]

3.4 — Time dependence of the radon inventory

Initially, the purified sample contains no radon. Radium supplies radon at the approximately constant rate \(R\), while radon decays at rate \(k_2N_{\mathrm{Rn}}\). Therefore,

\[ \frac{dN_{\mathrm{Rn}}}{dt}=R-k_2N_{\mathrm{Rn}}, \qquad N_{\mathrm{Rn}}(0)=0. \]

The solution is

\[ N_{\mathrm{Rn}}(t) =\frac{R}{k_2}\left(1-e^{-k_2t}\right). \]

The radon inventory starts at zero, increases with a progressively decreasing slope, and approaches the plateau \(R/k_2\). Thus the correct plot is

\[ \boxed{\mathrm C}. \]

3.5 — Time dependence of the helium volume

Each radium decay immediately supplies one helium atom. Each radon decay, followed by the short-lived intermediates down to RaD, supplies three more. Thus

\[ \frac{dN_{\mathrm{He}}}{dt} =R+3k_2N_{\mathrm{Rn}} =R\left(4-3e^{-k_2t}\right). \]

The helium production rate increases from \(R\) initially to \(4R\) once the radon inventory reaches equilibrium. In particular,

\[ \frac{d^2N_{\mathrm{He}}}{dt^2} =3Rk_2e^{-k_2t}>0. \]

The helium volume is proportional to \(N_{\mathrm{He}}\), so it increases with upward curvature and eventually becomes nearly linear. The matching plot is

\[ \boxed{\mathrm F}. \]

The idealized curve has a nonzero initial slope because radium itself emits \(\alpha\)-particles from the start.

3.6 — Decay constant and half-life

Radioactive decay follows

\[ N(t)=N(0)e^{-kt}. \]

At one half-life,

\[ \frac{N(T_{1/2})}{N(0)} =\frac12=e^{-kT_{1/2}}. \]

Taking logarithms gives

\[ \boxed{k=\frac{\ln2}{T_{1/2}}}. \]

3.7(a) — Relation between radon and radium inventories

The radon production rate is

\[ R=k_1N_{\mathrm{Ra}}. \]

Under the constant-parent approximation, the finite-time relation is

\[ N'_{\mathrm{Rn}} =\frac{k_1N_{\mathrm{Ra}}}{k_2} \left(1-e^{-k_2t}\right). \]

At 83.0 days,

\[ e^{-k_2t} =2^{-83.0/3.83} =2.99\times10^{-7}, \]

so radon is effectively at its equilibrium plateau. Production and decay rates are consequently equal:

\[ \boxed{k_1N_{\mathrm{Ra}}\approx k_2N'_{\mathrm{Rn}}}, \]

or

\[ \boxed{N'_{\mathrm{Rn}}\approx \frac{k_1}{k_2}N_{\mathrm{Ra}}}. \]

3.7(b) — Number of radon atoms remaining

The radon decay constant is

\[ k_2 =\frac{\ln2}{3.83\times86400\ \mathrm s} =2.09466\times10^{-6}\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}. \]

Therefore,

\[ N'_{\mathrm{Rn}} \approx\frac{R}{k_2} =\frac{6.5664\times10^9\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}} {2.09466\times10^{-6}\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}} =\boxed{3.13\times10^{15}\text{ atoms}}. \]

Including the finite-time factor leaves this rounded result unchanged.

3.8 — Helium still obtainable from the remaining radon

Between radon-222 and RaD, three \(\alpha\)-decays occur. Therefore each remaining radon atom would produce three additional helium atoms upon reaching RaD.

Using the unrounded radon inventory,

\[ N_{\mathrm{He,additional}} =3N'_{\mathrm{Rn}} =3(3.13483\times10^{15}) =\boxed{9.40\times10^{15}\text{ atoms}}. \]

The initial radium-to-radon \(\alpha\)-particle has already been emitted, so it is not included in this additional yield.

3.9(a) — Improved number of helium atoms formed

The first approximation counted four helium atoms for every radium decay. It therefore included three helium atoms not yet produced for every radon atom still present at the end.

Subtracting this missing production,

\[ N_{\mathrm{He}} =4Rt-3N'_{\mathrm{Rn}}. \]

Numerically,

\[ N_{\mathrm{He}} =1.8835587072\times10^{17} -9.4044986\times10^{15} =1.7895137\times10^{17}. \]

Thus

\[ \boxed{N_{\mathrm{He}}=1.79\times10^{17}\text{ atoms}.} \]

3.9(b) — Improved Avogadro constant

The measured amount of helium remains \(2.9375\times10^{-7}\ \mathrm{mol}\). Hence

\[ N_{\mathrm A} =\frac{N_{\mathrm{He}}}{n_{\mathrm{He}}} =\frac{1.7895137\times10^{17}} {2.9375\times10^{-7}} =\boxed{6.09\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}}. \]

This incorporates the finite radon lifetime while retaining the problem’s approximations for the other decay products.

The solution was checked against the official solution.