IChO 1986 · Theory problem 4

Intramolecular catalysis of amide hydrolysis (an enzyme model)

The high efficiency of catalysis by enzymes is mainly due to an enzyme-reactant complex in which the reacting group is placed in a favourable position for the reaction with respect to the catalyzing groups of the enzyme. Studies are carried out with model compounds in which a catalyzing group has been introduced in the proximity of the reaction centre of the molecule. As an example we consider the hydrolysis of the amide bond in compound A. This reaction proceeds in water at 39 °C and pH = 2 more than a million times faster than the hydrolysis of compound B.

Figure 1

The relation between the rate constant \(k_{\mathrm{hyd}}\) and pH for the hydrolysis of A at 39 °C is shown in figure below.

Figure 2

Further observation:

Addition of water to the iso-imide C gives a rapid reaction, which initially yields A. Subsequently, hydrolysis of A occurs. The amid carbonyl group in A is labelled with \(\ce{^{13}C}\) and the hydrolysis is allowed to take place in \(\ce{H2^{18}O}\) at pH = 2 and 39 °C. The diacid formed upon hydrolysis is isolated, converted into a disilver salt and completely decarboxylated with bromine in a anhydrous reaction medium. The carbon dioxide formed is a mixture of particles of masses 44, 45, 46 and 47 which are formed in equal amounts.

4.1 Why is the hydrolysis of A so much faster than that of B?

4.2 Explain why the rate of hydrolysis of A is independent on pH in the range between pH = 0 to pH = 2.

4.3 Why does \(k_{\mathrm{hyd}}\) decrease so rapidly at pH values higher than 3.

4.4 Give a detailed reaction mechanism for the hydrolysis of A. Indicate which step in the reaction is rate determining.

4.5 Show that the observations further made are consistent with the reaction mechanism given under d.

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 4.1: The cis arrangement in A permits neighbouring-carboxyl-group participation through a five-membered cyclic intermediate. The trans arrangement in B prevents this favourable pathway.
  • 4.2: The neighbouring carboxyl group is predominantly protonated and supplies the proton needed internally. The rate therefore approaches a pH-independent limiting value.
  • 4.3: Carboxyl-group ionization suppresses this pathway. Approximately, \[ k_{\mathrm{hyd}}=\frac{k_0}{1+10^{\mathrm{pH}-\mathrm pK_a}}. \]
  • 4.4: Reversible cyclization gives a tetrahedral intermediate. Slow, proton-assisted C–N cleavage forms maleic anhydride, O=C1OC(=O)C=C1, which rapidly hydrolyses to maleic acid, O=C(O)/C=C\C(=O)O.
  • 4.5: Hydration of C can give the same tetrahedral intermediate, which readily returns to A. Subsequent hydrolysis through the symmetric anhydride places the incoming oxygen-18 at either carboxyl group with equal probability, giving carbon dioxide of nominal masses \(44,45,46,47\) in the ratio \(1:1:1:1\).

Solution

4.1 — Origin of the acceleration

The two starting compounds are:

Compound Name and alkene configuration SMILES
A N-Methylmaleamic acid; the carboxyl and amide groups are cis CNC(=O)/C=C\C(=O)O
B N-Methylfumaramic acid; the carboxyl and amide groups are trans CNC(=O)/C=C/C(=O)O

In A, the neighbouring carboxyl group can approach the amide carbonyl and participate in an intramolecular nucleophilic acyl substitution. Ring closure produces a favourable five-membered intermediate. The carboxyl group also supplies a proton that assists departure of the nitrogen-containing group.

This arrangement gives both favourable positioning and a high effective local concentration of the participating group. In B, the alkene holds the two substituents on opposite sides. The corresponding five-membered ring cannot form while retaining that trans double-bond geometry. Consequently, B lacks the strongly accelerated intramolecular pathway.

4.2 — The pH-independent region

Write \(\ce{HA}\) for neutral A, and \(\ce{A^-}\) for its conjugate base, N-methylmaleamate, CNC(=O)/C=C\C(=O)[O-]. Their equilibrium is

\[ \ce{HA <=> H+ + A^-}, \qquad K_a=\frac{[\ce{H+}][\ce{A^-}]}{[\ce{HA}]}. \]

Here the hydrogen ion is \(\ce{H+}\), [H+].

The efficient pathway requires the protonated carboxyl group: it provides neighbouring-group attack together with internal proton transfer. It does not require an additional hydronium ion in the rate-determining conversion.

Neglecting the much slower background hydrolysis, let \(k_0\) be the limiting first-order rate constant of this pathway. Then

\[ v=k_0[\ce{HA}] =k_{\mathrm{hyd}}\bigl([\ce{HA}]+[\ce{A^-}]\bigr), \]

so

\[ \boxed{ k_{\mathrm{hyd}} =k_0\frac{[\ce{H+}]}{K_a+[\ce{H+}]} =\frac{k_0}{1+10^{\mathrm{pH}-\mathrm pK_a}} }. \]

Between pH 0 and 2, the neutral acid predominates, and therefore

\[ [\ce{H+}]\gg K_a \quad\Longrightarrow\quad k_{\mathrm{hyd}}\approx k_0. \]

This accounts for the plateau.

4.3 — Decrease above pH 3

As the pH rises, an increasing fraction of A becomes its carboxylate anion. Although a carboxylate oxygen is nucleophilic, the group has lost the acidic proton required for the efficient coupled proton-transfer and amide-cleavage pathway.

The fraction of reactive neutral acid therefore falls sharply. In the higher-pH limit,

\[ k_{\mathrm{hyd}} \approx k_0\frac{[\ce{H+}]}{K_a}, \]

and consequently

\[ \log_{10} k_{\mathrm{hyd}} \approx \log_{10} k_0+\mathrm pK_a-\mathrm{pH}. \]

Thus the idealized descending branch approaches a slope of \(-1\): a one-unit increase in pH gives approximately a tenfold decrease in this contribution to the rate.

4.4 — Detailed mechanism and rate-determining step

The important cyclic species are:

Symbol Species SMILES
T Cyclic tetrahedral intermediate, 5-hydroxy-5-(methylamino)furan-2(5H)-one CNC1(O)OC(=O)C=C1
T\(_N\) Proton-transfer form of T, with an ammonium group and an alkoxide oxygen C[NH2+]C1([O-])OC(=O)C=C1
D Maleic anhydride O=C1OC(=O)C=C1

The transient stereochemistry at the tetrahedral carbon does not affect the argument; the SMILES for T and T\(_N\) leave it unspecified.

Reversible intramolecular addition. The hydroxyl oxygen of the neighbouring carboxyl group attacks the amide carbonyl carbon. The carbonyl \(\pi\) electrons move onto oxygen. Proton transfer from the participating carboxyl group to the former carbonyl oxygen gives T.

The newly formed ring contains, in sequence, the former amide carbonyl carbon, the two alkene carbons, the original carboxyl carbon and the participating oxygen. It is therefore five-membered.

Proton-assisted amide cleavage. Transfer of the hydroxyl proton in T to nitrogen gives the charge arrangement represented by T\(_N\). The alkoxide oxygen then reforms the carbonyl while the C–N bond breaks, releasing methylamine, CN, and forming maleic anhydride D.

These proton-transfer and bond-cleavage events may be coupled; they need not involve an appreciable concentration of an isolated T\(_N\).

The productive sequence is

\[ \ce{A <=> T <=> T_N ->[slow] D + CH3NH2}. \]

The rate-determining productive step is the proton-assisted C–N cleavage leading to the anhydride. The rapid return of the tetrahedral intermediate to A, discussed in 4.5, is consistent with this assignment.

Rapid anhydride hydrolysis. Water, O, attacks an anhydride carbonyl. Addition and proton transfer give a tetrahedral hydrate, 5,5-dihydroxyfuran-2(5H)-one, O=C1OC(O)(O)C=C1. Carbonyl reformation with cleavage of the acyl–oxygen bond opens the ring and gives maleic acid:

\[ \ce{C4H2O3 + H2O ->[fast] HOOC-CH=CH-COOH}. \]

At pH 2, the released methylamine is protonated to methylammonium, C[NH3+]:

\[ \ce{CH3NH2 + H+ -> CH3NH3+}. \]

The balanced overall reaction under these acidic conditions is

\[ \boxed{ \ce{HOOC-CH=CH-C(=O)-NHCH3 + H2O + H+ -> HOOC-CH=CH-COOH + CH3NH3+} }. \]

The alkene retains its cis configuration throughout.

4.5 — Consistency with the additional observations

Hydration of the iso-imide.

Compound C is N-methylmaleic iso-imide, C/N=C1\OC(=O)C=C1; this SMILES represents the imine arrangement drawn in the question.

Water addition at its imidoyl carbon, accompanied by proton transfer to nitrogen, gives the same tetrahedral intermediate T:

\[ \ce{C + H2O ->[fast] T ->[fast] A}. \]

The corresponding molecular-formula balance is

\[ \ce{C5H5NO2 + H2O -> C5H7NO3}. \]

In T, reformation of the amide carbonyl with cleavage of the ring’s acyl–oxygen bond regenerates A. This route is faster than productive C–N cleavage. Thus C initially yields A, after which the slower anhydride-forming reaction occurs, exactly as observed.

Carbon-13 and oxygen-18 tracing.

The starting material is amide-carbonyl-\(^{13}\)C-labelled A, CN[13C](=O)/C=C\C(=O)O. Its intramolecular reaction gives carbonyl-\(^{13}\)C-labelled maleic anhydride, O=[13C]1OC(=O)C=C1.

Crucially, formation of the anhydride incorporates no solvent oxygen. The oxygen-18 enters during the subsequent reaction with oxygen-18-labelled water, [18OH2].

The two carbonyl sites of the unlabelled maleic anhydride skeleton are equivalent. Neglecting small isotope effects, water attacks either site with probability \(1/2\). Each product molecule contains one carbon-13 atom and one newly incorporated oxygen-18 atom.

Site attacked by labelled water Maleic acid isotopomer formed Carbon dioxide masses obtained from its two carboxyl groups
The carbon-13 carbonyl Labels in the same carboxyl group: O=[13C]([18OH])/C=C\C(=O)O \(47\) and \(44\)
The carbon-12 carbonyl Labels in different carboxyl groups: O=[13C](O)/C=C\C(=O)[18OH] \(45\) and \(46\)

Unmarked oxygens in these product SMILES represent the original oxygen-16 atoms in the idealized isotope accounting.

Conversion to the disilver salt—disilver maleate, [Ag+].[Ag+].[O-]C(=O)/C=C\C(=O)[O-], with the labels retained—does not change which oxygen atoms belong to each carboxyl carbon. Decarboxylation with bromine, BrBr, in the anhydrous medium then releases those carboxyl units as carbon dioxide.

The resulting isotopologues are:

Carbon dioxide isotopologue SMILES Nominal mass / \(\mathrm{u}\) Fraction of total carbon dioxide
Carbon-12, oxygen-16 carbon dioxide, \(\ce{^{12}C^{16}O2}\) [16O]=[12C]=[16O] \(12+16+16=44\) \(1/4\)
Carbon-13 carbon dioxide, \(\ce{^{13}C^{16}O2}\) [16O]=[13C]=[16O] \(13+16+16=45\) \(1/4\)
Singly oxygen-18-labelled carbon dioxide, \(\ce{^{12}C^{16}O^{18}O}\) [16O]=[12C]=[18O] \(12+16+18=46\) \(1/4\)
Carbon-13 and oxygen-18-labelled carbon dioxide, \(\ce{^{13}C^{16}O^{18}O}\) [16O]=[13C]=[18O] \(13+16+18=47\) \(1/4\)

For \(n_0\) moles of hydrolysed A, each pathway occurs for \(n_0/2\) moles and produces one mole of each member of its carbon dioxide pair. Hence

\[ n_{44}=n_{45}=n_{46}=n_{47}=\frac{n_0}{2}, \qquad n_{\text{total}}=2n_0. \]

Therefore,

\[ \boxed{n_{44}:n_{45}:n_{46}:n_{47}=1:1:1:1}. \]

Direct hydrolysis solely at the original amide carbonyl would place oxygen-18 only with carbon-13 and give masses 47 and 44. The additional, equally abundant masses 45 and 46 support hydrolysis through the symmetric anhydride.

The solution was checked against the official solution.