IChO 1986 · Theory problem 3

Particle-in-a-box model of conjugated dyes and retinal

In order to explain why dyes are coloured, they can be considered as rod-like, one-dimensional molecules over which the electrons are distributed. The wave lengths of the electrons should fit to the available space which is the length \(l\). When absorbing light, an electron makes a transition from a lower to a higher energy state. The energy difference is given by:

\[ \Delta E=h\times\mathit{coverlambda}\quad\text{where }\lambda=\frac{h}{p} \]

3.1 Give a general expression for possible wavelengths of the electron as a function of the length \(l\).

In the 'particle in the box' model, only the variations in the kinetic energy of the electrons are considered.

3.2 Give an expression for the possible energies that electrons in the molecule can have (as a function of \(l\)).

3.3 Show that for a chain of length \(l\) with \(k\) electrons, the longest wavelength absorption occurs at:

\[ \lambda=\frac{8mcl^2}{h(k+1)} \qquad\text{for even values of }k \]

3.4 Derive an expression for the wavelength of the first electronic transition as a function of the number of C-atoms for even values of \(n\).

3.5 Calculate the minimum number of C-atoms (conjugated systems) to obtain a visible colour. C-C bond length is 142 pm.

The retina in the human eye contains rhodopsin, a light absorbent.

Figure 1

The molecule in the part of C-atoms 7 through 12 is planar. The angle between the bonds C5-C6, C7-C8, C11-C12 and C13-C14 is about 39°. According to the 'particle in the box' theory fragment C7 through C12 should absorb at about 213 nm. In reality the absorption of retinal occurs at 308 nm.

3.6 Give a reason for the longer wavelength that is observed in practice using the above mentioned theories.

3.7 When retinal is bound to opsin to form rhodopsin, the absorption occurs around 600 nm. Which atoms must be forced into one plane by the protein? Show by calculation that it's true.

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 3.1 \(\displaystyle \lambda_{\mathrm e,j}=\frac{2l}{j}\), where \(j=1,2,3,\ldots\).
  • 3.2 \(\displaystyle E_j=\frac{j^2h^2}{8m_{\mathrm e}l^2}\).
  • 3.3 The lowest excitation is \(j=k/2\rightarrow k/2+1\), giving \(\displaystyle \lambda_{\max}=\frac{8m_{\mathrm e}cl^2}{h(k+1)}\).
  • 3.4 With \(a\) the carbon–carbon bond length, \(l=(n-1)a\) and \(k=n\), so \[ \boxed{\lambda_{\mathrm{first}}=\frac{8m_{\mathrm e}ca^2}{h}\frac{(n-1)^2}{n+1}}. \]
  • 3.5 \(\boxed{n_{\min}=10}\) conjugated carbon atoms. The predicted absorption is approximately \(490\,\mathrm{nm}\); eight carbon atoms give \(362\,\mathrm{nm}\).
  • 3.6 Twisting reduces, but does not eliminate, orbital overlap. Delocalization therefore extends beyond C7–C12, lowering the excitation energy and increasing the absorption wavelength.
  • 3.7 Within the stated model, the entire conjugated skeleton—C5 through C15 and the terminal oxygen in the drawing—must be coplanar. It contains \(12\) conjugated electrons over approximately \(1.54\,\mathrm{nm}\), giving \(\boxed{\lambda\approx600\,\mathrm{nm}}\).

Solution

Write \(\lambda_{\mathrm e}\) for an electron’s de Broglie wavelength and \(\lambda_{\mathrm{ph}}\) for the absorbed photon’s wavelength. The two relevant relations are

\[ p=\frac{h}{\lambda_{\mathrm e}}, \qquad \Delta E=\frac{hc}{\lambda_{\mathrm{ph}}}. \]

For numerical calculations, use

\[ h=6.626\times10^{-34}\,\mathrm{J\,s},\qquad m_{\mathrm e}=9.109\times10^{-31}\,\mathrm{kg},\qquad c=2.998\times10^8\,\mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}. \]

3.1

For a particle confined by impenetrable ends at \(x=0\) and \(x=l\), the wavefunction must vanish at both ends. Thus an integral number of half-wavelengths fits into the box:

\[ l=j\frac{\lambda_{\mathrm e,j}}{2}. \]

Consequently,

\[ \boxed{\lambda_{\mathrm e,j}=\frac{2l}{j}}, \qquad j=1,2,3,\ldots. \]

The corresponding standing waves are proportional to \(\sin(j\pi x/l)\). The value \(j=0\) would give an identically zero wavefunction and is excluded.

3.2

The permitted momentum magnitudes are

\[ p_j=\frac{h}{\lambda_{\mathrm e,j}}=\frac{jh}{2l}. \]

Taking the potential energy inside the box as zero, the energy is entirely kinetic:

\[ E_j=\frac{p_j^2}{2m_{\mathrm e}}. \]

Therefore,

\[ \boxed{E_j=\frac{j^2h^2}{8m_{\mathrm e}l^2}}, \qquad j=1,2,3,\ldots. \]

3.3

Each spatial energy level accommodates two electrons with opposite spins. For an even number \(k\) of electrons in the ground state, the occupied levels are

\[ j=1,2,\ldots,\frac{k}{2}. \]

The smallest possible excitation promotes an electron from the highest occupied level to the lowest unoccupied level:

\[ \frac{k}{2}\longrightarrow\frac{k}{2}+1. \]

This adjacent-level transition is dipole allowed. Its energy is

\[ \begin{aligned} \Delta E_{\min} &=E_{k/2+1}-E_{k/2}\\ &=\frac{h^2}{8m_{\mathrm e}l^2} \left[\left(\frac{k}{2}+1\right)^2-\left(\frac{k}{2}\right)^2\right]\\ &=\frac{h^2(k+1)}{8m_{\mathrm e}l^2}. \end{aligned} \]

Since the longest photon wavelength corresponds to the smallest excitation energy,

\[ \boxed{\lambda_{\max} =\frac{hc}{\Delta E_{\min}} =\frac{8m_{\mathrm e}cl^2}{h(k+1)}}. \]

3.4

An unbranched conjugated chain containing \(n\) carbon atoms has \(n-1\) bonds along its backbone. Using the chain’s contour length as the one-dimensional box length,

\[ l=(n-1)a, \]

where \(a\) is the common carbon–carbon bond length. Each conjugated carbon supplies one \(\pi\) electron, so \(k=n\).

Substitution into the result of 3.3 gives

\[ \boxed{\lambda_{\mathrm{first}}(n) =\frac{8m_{\mathrm e}ca^2(n-1)^2}{h(n+1)}}, \qquad n\text{ even}. \]

For \(a=142\,\mathrm{pm}=1.42\times10^{-10}\,\mathrm m\),

\[ \frac{8m_{\mathrm e}ca^2}{h} =6.648\times10^{-8}\,\mathrm m =66.48\,\mathrm{nm}. \]

Hence

\[ \boxed{\lambda_{\mathrm{first}}(n) =(66.48\,\mathrm{nm})\frac{(n-1)^2}{n+1}}. \]

3.5

Taking approximately \(400\,\mathrm{nm}\) as the short-wavelength boundary of visible light requires

\[ 66.48\frac{(n-1)^2}{n+1}\geq400. \]

The equality gives \(n\approx8.60\). Because \(n\) must be even, the first candidate is \(n=10\). Checking the neighboring even values:

Conjugated carbon atoms \(n\) Box length \(l\) First absorption wavelength
8 \(994\,\mathrm{pm}\) \(362\,\mathrm{nm}\)
10 \(1278\,\mathrm{pm}\) \(490\,\mathrm{nm}\)

Thus eight carbon atoms still give ultraviolet absorption, whereas ten give visible absorption:

\[ \boxed{n_{\min}=10}. \]

Using \(380\,\mathrm{nm}\) instead of \(400\,\mathrm{nm}\) for the visible boundary gives the same minimum.

3.6

The molecule drawn is retinal, with an all-trans polyene configuration, represented by the SMILES
O=C/C=C(\C)/C=C/C=C(\C)/C=C/C1=C(C)CCCC1(C)C.

This SMILES specifies connectivity and double-bond configuration; it does not specify the single-bond torsion angles shown in the figure.

Restricting the box to C7–C12 assumes that the conjugated electrons cannot extend beyond that fragment. However, the neighboring double bonds are separated from it by single bonds about which the molecule is twisted. A twist of the stated magnitude reduces the overlap of neighboring \(p\) orbitals but does not make that overlap zero.

Consequently, the electronic states extend beyond C7–C12 into the neighboring conjugated groups. The greater effective delocalization length lowers the first excitation energy, so

\[ \Delta E\downarrow \quad\Longrightarrow\quad \lambda_{\mathrm{ph}}=\frac{hc}{\Delta E}\uparrow. \]

This explains qualitatively why the observed \(308\,\mathrm{nm}\) is longer than the stated isolated-fragment prediction of \(213\,\mathrm{nm}\). The simple model and torsion angles alone do not determine the precise observed wavelength.

3.7

To maximize conjugation in the model, the protein must bring the complete conjugated skeleton into one plane:

  • the ring double bond, C5=C6;
  • the chain carbons C7–C15;
  • the terminal carbonyl oxygen in the supplied drawing.

Thus the relevant plane contains C5–C15 and O. The saturated ring carbons C1–C4 and the methyl carbons do not belong to this conjugated electron system.

There are six conjugated double bonds: five carbon–carbon double bonds and one carbon–oxygen double bond. Therefore,

\[ k=6\times2=12\text{ electrons}. \]

Adding the labelled bond lengths along the conjugated path from C5 to O gives approximately

\[ l=l_{5,6}+l_{6,7}+\cdots+l_{14,15}+l_{15,\mathrm O} \simeq1.54\,\mathrm{nm}. \]

The predicted absorption is therefore

\[ \begin{aligned} \lambda_{\max} &=\frac{8m_{\mathrm e}cl^2}{h(k+1)}\\ &\simeq \frac{ 8(9.109\times10^{-31}\,\mathrm{kg}) (2.998\times10^8\,\mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}) (1.54\times10^{-9}\,\mathrm m)^2 }{ (6.626\times10^{-34}\,\mathrm{J\,s})(13) }\\ &\simeq6.0\times10^{-7}\,\mathrm m\\ &=\boxed{6.0\times10^2\,\mathrm{nm}}. \end{aligned} \]

This agrees with the problem’s value of about \(600\,\mathrm{nm}\).

The solution was checked against the official solution.