IChO 2024 · Theory problem 1

Ammonia

The Haber–Bosch process to produce ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen is one of the most impactful industrial processes in history and estimated to sustain around half of today’s population. The process typically occurs at constant temperature and pressure, 400 °C and 100 bar, respectively. Equilibrium between the reactants and the product is established over Fe-based catalysts in the reactor.

The standard gas phase thermochemistry data of \(\ce{N2}\), \(\ce{H2}\), and \(\ce{NH3}\) are shown below. Assume the enthalpy and entropy of the reaction are temperature independent.

\(\ce{N2(g)}\) \(\ce{H2(g)}\) \(\ce{NH3(g)}\)
\(\Delta_f H^\circ/(\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}})\) 0 0 −45.9
\(S^\circ/(\mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}})\) 191.6 130.7 192.8

1.1 — 7 pt

Find the molar nitrogen conversion (in percent) to ammonia under the production conditions from a stoichiometric mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen. Show your calculations for partial credit. If you cannot find a result, use 66% in subsequent calculations.

One of the reactants in the Haber–Bosch process is hydrogen, mainly produced by steam reforming of methane. The two-step process starts with \(\ce{CH4}\) reacting with water to produce \(\ce{H2}\) and \(\ce{CO}\). In a subsequent step, \(\ce{CO}\) reacts with water to form \(\ce{CO2}\) and additional hydrogen.

1.2 — 2 pt

Write the overall reaction equation for the combined process. Give the mass of \(\ce{CO2}\) produced in the reaction per 1.0 kg of \(\ce{H2}\) (\(m_{\ce{CO2}}\)).

In reality, 7.0 kg of carbon dioxide is produced for each 1.0 kg of hydrogen in steam reforming. The generated ammonia is classified based on \(\ce{CO2}\) management. For "gray" ammonia, the \(\ce{CO2}\) is released in the atmosphere; for "blue" ammonia, it is captured and stored. "Green" ammonia is made from hydrogen produced without carbon emissions.

1.3 — 3 pt

Calculate the mass of the carbon dioxide (\(m_{\ce{CO2},\,\mathrm{blue}}\)) that needs to be captured to produce 40,000 kg of “blue” ammonia. Assume that carbon dioxide only comes from a real steam reforming process. Assume further that the ammonia is produced at equilibrium from a stoichiometric mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen.

Using cheap renewable hydrogen, the prospect of converting it with captured \(\ce{CO2}\) into methanol appears promising. However, in this procedure, there is a competing reaction that produces \(\ce{CO}\):

Figure 1

Into a reactor maintained at 250 °C and 50 bar, a mixture containing \(\ce{CO2}:\ce{H2}\) in a molar ratio of \(1:4\) is fed. It has been found that the \(\ce{CO2}\) conversion is 30% and the \(\ce{H2}\) conversion is 18.5% when these two reactions are at equilibrium. No other processes need to be considered.

1.4 — 5 pt

Calculate the thermodynamic equilibrium constants (at 250 °C) of the two reactions.

Heterogeneous copper-containing catalysts are commonly used for \(\ce{CO2}\) hydrogenation. Two specific, Cu-containing catalysts (\(A\) and \(B\)) showed promise for converting \(\ce{CO2}\) to methanol. These catalysts differ not only in their catalytic rates, but also in surface area, Cu content, and Cu dispersion (the ratio of surface Cu to the total Cu in the catalyst).

Cu dispersion is important, because only Cu species at the surface are active in \(\ce{CO2}\) hydrogenation. Under this assumption, 1 mole of active sites corresponds to 1 mole of surface Cu. The efficiency of these active sites is shown by their turnover frequencies (TOF, moles of product formed per moles of active site in a given time).

The table below reports the performance (reported as mass of produced methanol per total catalyst mass in a given time) and the specific surface areas of the two catalysts. The Cu content and dispersion of the catalysts was also measured and reported as follows:

  1. At the start, all the copper in the catalysts (oxidized beforehand) is present as Cu(II); that was fully reduced to Cu(0) with hydrogen. No other species in the catalysts reacted with hydrogen besides copper oxides.
  2. \(\ce{N2O}\) was introduced to the reduced samples at room temperature. At this temperature, \(\ce{N2O}\) only oxidizes active surface sites to Cu(I).
  3. The Cu(I) active surface sites were reduced again to Cu(0) with hydrogen.
Figure 2
Catalyst performance \((\mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{MeOH}}\,\mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{cat}}^{-1}\,\mathrm{h}^{-1})\) Specific surface area \((\mathrm{m^2}\,\mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{cat}}^{-1})\) \(\ce{H2}\) consumed in step 1 \((\mathrm{mmol}\,\mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{cat}}^{-1})\) \(\ce{H2}\) consumed in step 3 \((\mathrm{mmol}\,\mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{cat}}^{-1})\)
Catalyst \(A\) 0.80 100 5.0 0.30
Catalyst \(B\) 0.90 120 4.0 0.70

1.5 — 3 pt

Find the methanol production rate per total mass of Cu (in \(\mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{MeOH}}\,\mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{Cu}}^{-1}\,\mathrm{h}^{-1}\)) for catalysts \(A\) and \(B\).

1.6 — 3 pt

Find the TOF (in \(\mathrm{h}^{-1}\)) for catalysts \(A\) and \(B\).

If you cannot find results, use \(\mathit{TOF}_{\mathrm{Catalyst}\ A}=100\ \mathrm{h}^{-1}\) and \(\mathit{TOF}_{\mathrm{Catalyst}\ B}=1\ \mathrm{h}^{-1}\) in subsequent calculations.

1.7 — 1 pt

Indicate the correct statement on the answer sheet.

a. Catalyst \(A\) has more efficient active sites.
b. Catalyst \(B\) has more efficient active sites.
c. The two catalysts have active sites with the same efficiency.

Avogadro constant: \(N_A=6.022\cdot10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}\) Gas constant: \(R=8.314\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}}\)
Ionic product of water at 298.15 K: \(K_w=10^{-14}\) Zero of the Celsius scale: \(0\,^\circ\mathrm{C}=273.15\ \mathrm{K}\)
Faraday constant: \(F=96485\ \mathrm{C\,mol^{-1}}\) Planck constant: \(h=6.626\cdot10^{-34}\ \mathrm{J\,s}\)
Speed of light: \(c=2.998\cdot10^8\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}\) Standard pressure: \(p^\circ=1\cdot10^5\ \mathrm{Pa}=1\ \mathrm{bar}\)
Ideal gas law: \(pV=nRT\) Beer-Lambert law: \(A=\log\left(\frac{I_0}{I}\right)=\varepsilon\cdot l\cdot c\)
Enthalpy: \(H=U+pV\) Gibbs energy: \(G=H-TS\)
\(\Delta_rG^\circ=-RT\ln K=-nFE^\circ_{\mathrm{cell}}\) Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: \(\mathrm{pH}=\mathrm{p}K_a+\log\left(\frac{[\ce{A-}]}{[\ce{HA}]}\right)\)
Arrhenius equation: \(k=A\exp\left(-\frac{E_A}{RT}\right)\) Zeroth order integrated rate law: \([\ce{A}]=[\ce{A}]_0-kt\)
Surface of a sphere: \(A=4\pi R^2\) First order integrated rate law: \(\ln[\ce{A}]=\ln[\ce{A}]_0-kt\)
Volume of a sphere: \(V=\frac{4\pi}{3}R^3\) \(\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{\infty}ar^k=\frac{a}{1-r}\quad\text{for }\lvert r\rvert<1\)

Periodic table

Figure 3

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 1.1: Nitrogen conversion \(=51.0\%\).
  • 1.2: \(\ce{CH4 + 2H2O -> CO2 + 4H2}\); \(m_{\ce{CO2}}=5.46\ \mathrm{kg}\approx5.5\ \mathrm{kg}\) per \(1.0\ \mathrm{kg}\) of hydrogen. The species are methane C, water O, carbon dioxide O=C=O, and hydrogen [H][H].
  • 1.3: \(m_{\ce{CO2},\,\mathrm{blue}}=9.74\times10^4\ \mathrm{kg}\approx9.7\times10^4\ \mathrm{kg}\).
  • 1.4: Methanol synthesis: \(K=2.26\times10^{-5}\). Carbon monoxide formation: \(K=1.05\times10^{-2}\). Both are dimensionless and apply at \(250\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\).
  • 1.5: Catalyst \(A\): \(2.52\); catalyst \(B\): \(3.54\), in \(\mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{MeOH}}\,\mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{Cu}}^{-1}\,\mathrm{h}^{-1}\), or \(2.5\) and \(3.5\) to two significant figures.
  • 1.6: \(\mathit{TOF}_A=41.6\ \mathrm{h}^{-1}\) and \(\mathit{TOF}_B=20.1\ \mathrm{h}^{-1}\), or \(42\) and \(20\ \mathrm{h}^{-1}\) to two significant figures.
  • 1.7: a. Catalyst \(A\) has more efficient active sites.

Solution

The molecular species used in the solution have the following names and SMILES:

Formula Name SMILES
\(\ce{N2}\) Nitrogen N#N
\(\ce{H2}\) Hydrogen [H][H]
\(\ce{NH3}\) Ammonia N
\(\ce{CH4}\) Methane C
\(\ce{H2O}\) Water O
\(\ce{CO}\) Carbon monoxide [C-]#[O+]
\(\ce{CO2}\) Carbon dioxide O=C=O
\(\ce{CH3OH}\) Methanol CO
\(\ce{N2O}\) Nitrous oxide N#[N+][O-]

Copper metal has the atomic SMILES [Cu]. Copper(II) oxide, \(\ce{CuO}\), and copper(I) oxide, \(\ce{Cu2O}\), can be encoded as formal ionic formula units [Cu+2].[O-2] and [Cu+].[Cu+].[O-2], respectively. These solids are extended structures; the encodings do not specify their crystal lattices or surface coordination.

For the gas equilibria, use ideal-gas activities, \[ a_i=\frac{p_i}{p^\circ},\qquad p^\circ=1\ \mathrm{bar}. \] This makes the thermodynamic equilibrium constants dimensionless.

1.1 — Equilibrium conversion of nitrogen

The balanced ammonia synthesis reaction is \[ \ce{N2(g) + 3H2(g) <=> 2NH3(g)}. \]

From the supplied thermochemical data, \[ \Delta_rH^\circ=2(-45.9)=-91.8\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}, \] and \[ \begin{aligned} \Delta_rS^\circ &=2(192.8)-191.6-3(130.7)\\ &=-198.1\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}}. \end{aligned} \]

At \(T=400+273.15=673.15\ \mathrm{K}\), \[ \begin{aligned} \Delta_rG^\circ &=\Delta_rH^\circ-T\Delta_rS^\circ\\ &=-91800-(673.15)(-198.1)\\ &=41551\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}}. \end{aligned} \]

Therefore, \[ K=\exp\left(-\frac{\Delta_rG^\circ}{RT}\right) =\exp\left(-\frac{41551}{8.314(673.15)}\right) =5.96535\times10^{-4}. \]

Take an initial mixture of \(1\ \mathrm{mol}\) nitrogen and \(3\ \mathrm{mol}\) hydrogen. Let \(x\) be the fraction of nitrogen converted.

Species Initial amount / mol Equilibrium amount / mol
\(\ce{N2}\) 1 \(1-x\)
\(\ce{H2}\) 3 \(3(1-x)\)
\(\ce{NH3}\) 0 \(2x\)
Total 4 \(4-2x\)

Since \(p_i=y_iP\), \[ \begin{aligned} K &=\frac{(p_{\ce{NH3}}/p^\circ)^2} {(p_{\ce{N2}}/p^\circ)(p_{\ce{H2}}/p^\circ)^3}\\ &=\frac{4x^2(4-2x)^2}{27(1-x)^4} \left(\frac{p^\circ}{P}\right)^2. \end{aligned} \]

With \(P/p^\circ=100\), taking the positive square root gives \[ \frac{x(2-x)}{(1-x)^2} =\frac{\sqrt{27}}{4}(100)\sqrt{K} =3.17278. \]

Using \(x(2-x)=1-(1-x)^2\), \[ \frac{1}{(1-x)^2}-1=3.17278, \] so the physically admissible root is \[ x=1-\frac{1}{\sqrt{4.17278}}=0.510461. \]

Thus, \[ \boxed{\text{Nitrogen conversion}=100x=51.0\%.} \]

1.2 — Carbon dioxide from the combined reforming process

The two balanced steps are steam reforming, \[ \ce{CH4 + H2O -> CO + 3H2}, \] and the water–gas shift reaction, \[ \ce{CO + H2O -> CO2 + H2}. \]

Adding them and cancelling the intermediate carbon monoxide gives \[ \boxed{\ce{CH4 + 2H2O -> CO2 + 4H2}}. \]

The supplied atomic masses give \[ M_{\ce{H2}}=2(1.008)=2.016\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}, \] \[ M_{\ce{CO2}}=12.01+2(16.00)=44.01\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}. \]

One mole of carbon dioxide accompanies four moles of hydrogen. Hence \[ \begin{aligned} m_{\ce{CO2}} &=(1.0\ \mathrm{kg}) \frac{44.01}{4(2.016)}\\ &=5.4576\ \mathrm{kg}. \end{aligned} \]

Therefore, \[ \boxed{m_{\ce{CO2}}\approx5.5\ \mathrm{kg}\text{ per }1.0\ \mathrm{kg\ of\ hydrogen}.} \]

1.3 — Carbon dioxide capture for blue ammonia

Use a single equilibrium pass of the stoichiometric feed. Both nitrogen and hydrogen have the same fractional conversion \(x\), because they are supplied and consumed in the ratio \(1:3\).

For each \(2x\ \mathrm{mol}\) of ammonia formed, the initial feed contains \(3\ \mathrm{mol}\) of hydrogen. Therefore, \[ n_{\ce{H2},\,\mathrm{feed}} =\frac{3}{2x}n_{\ce{NH3}}. \]

The molar mass of ammonia is \[ M_{\ce{NH3}}=14.01+3(1.008)=17.034\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}. \]

Thus, \[ \begin{aligned} m_{\ce{H2},\,\mathrm{feed}} &=m_{\ce{NH3}} \frac{3M_{\ce{H2}}}{2xM_{\ce{NH3}}}\\ &=(40000\ \mathrm{kg}) \frac{3(2.016)}{2(0.510461)(17.034)}\\ &=13911.1\ \mathrm{kg}. \end{aligned} \]

The real reforming process produces \(7.0\ \mathrm{kg}\) of carbon dioxide per kilogram of hydrogen supplied. Consequently, \[ \begin{aligned} m_{\ce{CO2},\,\mathrm{blue}} &=7.0\,m_{\ce{H2},\,\mathrm{feed}}\\ &=97377.9\ \mathrm{kg}. \end{aligned} \]

All of this carbon dioxide must be captured: \[ \boxed{m_{\ce{CO2},\,\mathrm{blue}}\approx9.7\times10^4\ \mathrm{kg}.} \]

The conversion factor is needed because some of the supplied hydrogen remains unreacted at equilibrium.

1.4 — Equilibrium constants for methanol and carbon monoxide formation

The two reactions are methanol synthesis, \[ \ce{CO2(g) + 3H2(g) <=> CH3OH(g) + H2O(g)}, \] and the reverse water–gas shift reaction, \[ \ce{CO2(g) + H2(g) <=> CO(g) + H2O(g)}. \]

Take a feed containing \(1.000\ \mathrm{mol}\) carbon dioxide and \(4.000\ \mathrm{mol}\) hydrogen. Let \(\xi_{\mathrm{M}}\) and \(\xi_{\mathrm{CO}}\) be the reaction extents for methanol synthesis and carbon monoxide formation.

The carbon dioxide conversion gives \[ \xi_{\mathrm{M}}+\xi_{\mathrm{CO}}=0.300\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

The hydrogen conversion gives \[ 3\xi_{\mathrm{M}}+\xi_{\mathrm{CO}} =(0.185)(4.000)=0.740\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

Subtracting, \[ 2\xi_{\mathrm{M}}=0.440\ \mathrm{mol}, \] so \[ \xi_{\mathrm{M}}=0.220\ \mathrm{mol}, \qquad \xi_{\mathrm{CO}}=0.080\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

The equilibrium composition and partial pressures at \(P=50\ \mathrm{bar}\) are:

Species Equilibrium amount / mol Partial pressure / bar
\(\ce{CO2}\) \(1-0.220-0.080=0.700\) 7.6754
\(\ce{H2}\) \(4-3(0.220)-0.080=3.260\) 35.7456
\(\ce{CH3OH}\) 0.220 2.4123
\(\ce{H2O}\) \(0.220+0.080=0.300\) 3.2895
\(\ce{CO}\) 0.080 0.87719
Total 4.560 50.000

For methanol synthesis, \(\Delta\nu=-2\). Therefore, \[ K_{\mathrm{M}} =\frac{a_{\ce{CH3OH}}a_{\ce{H2O}}} {a_{\ce{CO2}}a_{\ce{H2}}^3}. \]

Substituting \(a_i=(n_i/n_{\mathrm{tot}})(P/p^\circ)\), \[ \begin{aligned} K_{\mathrm{M}} &=\frac{(0.220)(0.300)(4.560)^2} {(0.700)(3.260)^3} \left(\frac{1}{50}\right)^2\\ &=2.26351\times10^{-5}. \end{aligned} \]

Thus, \[ \boxed{K_{\mathrm{M}}=2.26\times10^{-5}.} \]

For carbon monoxide formation, \(\Delta\nu=0\), so total pressure and total amount cancel: \[ \begin{aligned} K_{\mathrm{CO}} &=\frac{a_{\ce{CO}}a_{\ce{H2O}}} {a_{\ce{CO2}}a_{\ce{H2}}}\\ &=\frac{(0.080)(0.300)}{(0.700)(3.260)}\\ &=0.0105171. \end{aligned} \]

Hence, \[ \boxed{K_{\mathrm{CO}}=1.05\times10^{-2}.} \]

Both constants are dimensionless and correspond to \(250\,^\circ\mathrm{C}=523.15\ \mathrm{K}\).

1.5 — Methanol production per total mass of copper

In step 1, copper(II) oxide is fully reduced: \[ \ce{CuO + H2 -> Cu + H2O}. \]

One mole of hydrogen reduces one mole of copper. Thus, \[ n_{\mathrm{Cu,total}}=n_{\ce{H2},\,\mathrm{step\ 1}}. \]

Using \(M_{\ce{Cu}}=63.55\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}\), the copper contents are \[ \left(\frac{m_{\mathrm{Cu}}}{m_{\mathrm{cat}}}\right)_A =(5.0\times10^{-3})(63.55) =0.31775\ \mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{Cu}}\,\mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{cat}}^{-1}, \] \[ \left(\frac{m_{\mathrm{Cu}}}{m_{\mathrm{cat}}}\right)_B =(4.0\times10^{-3})(63.55) =0.25420\ \mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{Cu}}\,\mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{cat}}^{-1}. \]

Divide each reported production rate by its copper mass fraction: \[ r_{A,\mathrm{Cu}} =\frac{0.80}{0.31775} =2.5177\ \mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{MeOH}}\, \mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{Cu}}^{-1}\,\mathrm{h}^{-1}, \] \[ r_{B,\mathrm{Cu}} =\frac{0.90}{0.25420} =3.5405\ \mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{MeOH}}\, \mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{Cu}}^{-1}\,\mathrm{h}^{-1}. \]

Therefore, to two significant figures, \[ \boxed{ r_{A,\mathrm{Cu}}=2.5,\qquad r_{B,\mathrm{Cu}}=3.5 \quad \mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{MeOH}}\, \mathrm{g}_{\mathrm{Cu}}^{-1}\,\mathrm{h}^{-1}. } \]

1.6 — Turnover frequencies

The selective oxidation of surface copper in step 2 is \[ \ce{2Cu + N2O -> Cu2O + N2}. \]

In step 3, the resulting copper(I) oxide is reduced: \[ \ce{Cu2O + H2 -> 2Cu + H2O}. \]

Thus, one mole of hydrogen consumed in step 3 corresponds to two moles of surface copper, and hence two moles of active sites: \[ n_{\mathrm{sites}}=2n_{\ce{H2},\,\mathrm{step\ 3}}. \]

Per gram of catalyst, \[ n_{\mathrm{sites},A} =2(0.30)=0.60\ \mathrm{mmol\,g_{\mathrm{cat}}^{-1}}, \] \[ n_{\mathrm{sites},B} =2(0.70)=1.40\ \mathrm{mmol\,g_{\mathrm{cat}}^{-1}}. \]

These correspond to copper dispersions of \[ D_A=\frac{0.60}{5.0}=12\%, \qquad D_B=\frac{1.40}{4.0}=35\%. \]

The molar mass of methanol is \[ M_{\ce{CH3OH}} =12.01+4(1.008)+16.00 =32.042\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}. \]

By definition, \[ \mathit{TOF} =\frac{\text{moles of methanol produced per hour}} {\text{moles of active sites}}. \]

For catalyst \(A\), \[ \begin{aligned} \mathit{TOF}_A &=\frac{0.80/32.042}{0.60\times10^{-3}}\\ &=41.612\ \mathrm{h}^{-1}. \end{aligned} \]

For catalyst \(B\), \[ \begin{aligned} \mathit{TOF}_B &=\frac{0.90/32.042}{1.40\times10^{-3}}\\ &=20.063\ \mathrm{h}^{-1}. \end{aligned} \]

Therefore, \[ \boxed{ \mathit{TOF}_A\approx42\ \mathrm{h}^{-1}, \qquad \mathit{TOF}_B\approx20\ \mathrm{h}^{-1}. } \]

The specific surface areas are unnecessary for this calculation because the hydrogen consumption directly measures the amount of active surface copper.

1.7 — Efficiency of the active sites

Active-site efficiency is measured by the turnover frequency. Here, \[ \frac{\mathit{TOF}_A}{\mathit{TOF}_B} =\frac{41.612}{20.063} \approx2.07. \]

Each active site on catalyst \(A\) therefore produces approximately twice as much methanol per unit time as an active site on catalyst \(B\).

Select: \[ \boxed{\text{a. Catalyst \(A\) has more efficient active sites.}} \]

The solution was checked against the official solution.