IChO 2017 · Theory problem 8

Silica Surface

Silica exists in various forms like amorphous and crystalline. Silica can be synthesized via sol- gel process by using silicon alkoxides like tetramethoxysilane (TMOS) and tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) as the details below:

a. Hydrolysis

Figure 1

b. Water condensation

Figure 2

c. Alcohol condensation

Figure 3

In bulk silica, all silicon atoms are tetrahedrally bonded to four oxygen atoms giving three-dimensional solid network. The silicon environments found inside silica is presented below:

Figure 4

8.1 Three silicon atom environments (similar to the example above) are commonly observed at the silica surface. The three structures of the silicon environments must be drawn in the provided boxes.

Figure 5

Silica can be used as an effective metal ion adsorbent in water. The proposed structure for metal-silica complex is as follows:

Figure 6

8.2 After \(\ce{Cu^2+}\) is being adsorbed, the color of silica changes from white to pale blue. The visible spectrum shows a broad absorption band (with a shoulder) at \(\lambda_{\max}=550\ \mathrm{nm}\).

If \(\ce{Cu^2+}\) can bind with silica and adopt the structure similar to II, draw the splitting diagram of the \(d\)- orbitals of \(\ce{Cu^2+}\) ion including the label of the \(d\) orbitals in the complex and specify the corresponding electronic transition(s) for the visible absorption.

8.3 If the first row transition metal ions form complexes with silica analogous to \(\ce{Cu^2+}\), which metal ion(s) do(es) have the analogous to electronic transition(s) to \(\ce{Cu^2+}\)?

The metal ion(s) must be in +2 or +3 oxidation state. Please note that the silanol groups (\(\ce{Si-OH}\)) and water are weak field ligands.

However, silica is randomly bonded to various types of metal ion. To increase the selectivity, modification of silica surface has been performed by grafting with various organic molecules like 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane and 3-mercaptopropyltrimethoxy-silane.

Figure 7
Figure 8

8.4 If \(\ce{Hg^2+}\) is only bonding to sulfur binding sites in silica-SH, the symmetric complex of \(\ce{[Hg(silica-SH)2]^2+}\) is formed. Draw the structure of \(\ce{[Hg(silica-SH)2]^2+}\), specify the direction of the bond axes, and draw the corresponding \(d\)-orbital splitting. (You may use \(\ce{R-SH}\) instead of drawing the whole structure of silica-SH.).

The structure:  \(d\)-orbital splitting diagram :

8.5 Specify whether the following statements are true or false:

a) \(d\)-\(d\) transition is found in \(\ce{[(Hg(silica-SH)_{x})]^2+}\)

□ True  □ False

b) The \(\ce{[Cu(silica-NH2)_{x}]^2+}\) in a similar geometry, is expected to have a color similar to other copper(II) amine complexes.

□ True  □ False

c) In the visible absorption spectra, \(\lambda_{\max}\) of \(\ce{[Cu(silica-NH2)_{x}]^2+}\) is greater than that of \(\ce{[Cu(silica-OH)_{x}]^2+}\).

□ True  □ False

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

In the surface-fragment SMILES below, [*] represents an attachment to the remaining structure. These fragments describe local connectivity, not the complete silica network.

  • 8.1: The three hydroxylated tetrahedral silicon environments are:
  • Monohydroxyl site, \(Q^3\): three bridging oxygens and one hydroxyl; fragment SMILES O[Si](O[*])(O[*])O[*].
  • Geminal dihydroxyl site, \(Q^2\): two bridging oxygens and two hydroxyls; fragment SMILES O[Si](O)(O[*])O[*].
  • Trihydroxyl site, \(Q^1\): one bridging oxygen and three hydroxyls; fragment SMILES O[Si](O)(O)O[*].

  • 8.2: Copper(II), \(\ce{Cu^2+}\), [Cu+2], is \(3d^9\). For the usual tetragonally elongated octahedron, a conventional ordering is \[ d_{xz}=d_{yz}<d_{xy}<d_{z^2}<d_{x^2-y^2}. \] The highest orbital is singly occupied; all others are doubly occupied. The absorption comprises \[ d_{z^2}\rightarrow d_{x^2-y^2},\qquad d_{xy}\rightarrow d_{x^2-y^2},\qquad (d_{xz},d_{yz})\rightarrow d_{x^2-y^2}. \] The relative order of the two intermediate levels depends on the distortion strength.

  • 8.3: Chromium(II), \(\ce{Cr^2+}\), [Cr+2], and manganese(III), \(\ce{Mn^3+}\), [Mn+3]. Both are high-spin \(3d^4\).

  • 8.4: Linear bis(thiol)mercury(II), \(\ce{[Hg(RSH)2]^2+}\); coordination-fragment SMILES [*][SH]->[Hg+2]<-[SH][*]. Place the two sulfur donors on the \(+z\) and \(-z\) axes: \[ \angle\ce{S-Hg-S}=180^\circ,\qquad d_{xy}=d_{x^2-y^2}<d_{xz}=d_{yz}<d_{z^2}. \] All five orbitals are doubly occupied.

  • 8.5: (a) False; (b) True; (c) False.

Solution

8.1 — Surface silicon environments

Each silicon remains tetrahedrally coordinated to four oxygen atoms. In the interior, all four oxygens bridge to other silicon atoms. At a hydroxylated surface, some of these positions terminate as silanol groups instead.

The notation \(Q^n\) counts the number of bridging oxygens attached to a silicon atom. Thus the three partially condensed, surface-connected possibilities are:

Site Local structural formula Bridging oxygens Terminal hydroxyls
Monohydroxyl, \(Q^3\) \(\ce{Si(OH)(O-Si)3}\) 3 1
Geminal dihydroxyl, \(Q^2\) \(\ce{Si(OH)2(O-Si)2}\) 2 2
Trihydroxyl, \(Q^1\) \(\ce{Si(OH)3(O-Si)}\) 1 3

These formulas denote fragments: each outer silicon continues into the solid.

To fill the boxes, draw a central silicon with four tetrahedrally directed bonds to oxygen. In the first box, label one oxygen as a hydroxyl and continue the other three into the network; in the second, use two of each; in the third, use three hydroxyls and one network connection. The corresponding fragment SMILES are given in the Answers section.

A site with no bridging oxygen would be a detached, fully hydroxylated silicon species, rather than a silicon atom connected to the silica surface.

8.2 — Copper orbital splitting and absorption

Copper(II), \(\ce{Cu^2+}\), [Cu+2], has configuration \[ [\mathrm{Ar}]\,3d^9. \]

In structure II, four surface silanol oxygen donors surround the metal in the \(xy\) plane, while two water ligands occupy the axial positions along \(z\). Water, \(\ce{H2O}\), has SMILES O.

The copper surface complex can be represented by the coordination-fragment SMILES [Cu+2](<-[OH2])(<-[OH2])(<-[OH][*])(<-[OH][*])(<-[OH][*])<-[OH][*], where each wildcard is a surface silicon. Dative arrows record oxygen-to-metal donation; the SMILES does not specify the octahedral geometry or bond lengths.

In an ideal octahedral field, the configuration is \[ t_{2g}^{6}e_g^{3}. \] The uneven occupation of the \(e_g\) orbitals makes this configuration Jahn–Teller active. The usual copper(II) distortion is axial elongation: the two bonds along \(z\) are longer than the four equatorial bonds.

Consequently:

  • \(d_{x^2-y^2}\), directed toward the four equatorial donors, becomes the highest orbital.
  • \(d_{z^2}\) is lowered relative to \(d_{x^2-y^2}\).
  • \(d_{xz}\) and \(d_{yz}\) are lowered relative to \(d_{xy}\), remaining mutually degenerate.

For a conventional moderate elongation, draw the following levels, with energy increasing upward:

Position Orbital(s) Occupancy
Highest \(d_{x^2-y^2}\) \(\uparrow\)
Next \(d_{z^2}\) \(\uparrow\downarrow\)
Next \(d_{xy}\) \(\uparrow\downarrow\)
Lowest \(d_{xz},\,d_{yz}\) \(\uparrow\downarrow\quad\uparrow\downarrow\)

Draw upward absorption arrows from each lower energy level to \(d_{x^2-y^2}\): \[ \begin{aligned} d_{z^2}&\longrightarrow d_{x^2-y^2},\\ d_{xy}&\longrightarrow d_{x^2-y^2},\\ d_{xz},\,d_{yz}&\longrightarrow d_{x^2-y^2}. \end{aligned} \]

Each promotion fills the vacancy in \(d_{x^2-y^2}\) and leaves a vacancy in a lower orbital. There are three distinct transition energies because \(d_{xz}\) and \(d_{yz}\) are degenerate.

These transitions can overlap into the observed broad band with a shoulder. The supplied \(550\ \mathrm{nm}\) maximum does not determine a separate wavelength for each transition.

8.3 — Other ions with analogous transitions

The relevant analogy is the availability of the same orbital promotions into the highest \(d_{x^2-y^2}\) orbital.

A high-spin \(d^4\) ion places one electron in each of the four lower orbitals and leaves \(d_{x^2-y^2}\) empty:

Orbital(s) Copper(II), \(d^9\) High-spin \(d^4\)
\(d_{x^2-y^2}\) \(\uparrow\) Empty
\(d_{z^2}\) \(\uparrow\downarrow\) \(\uparrow\)
\(d_{xy}\) \(\uparrow\downarrow\) \(\uparrow\)
\(d_{xz},\,d_{yz}\) \(\uparrow\downarrow\quad\uparrow\downarrow\) \(\uparrow\quad\uparrow\)

Thus the same three types of promotion shown in 8.2 are possible without changing the total spin. High-spin \(d^4\), with octahedral configuration \(t_{2g}^{3}e_g^{1}\), also has uneven \(e_g\) occupation and is strongly Jahn–Teller active.

The first-row ions in the permitted oxidation states with this configuration are:

\[ \begin{aligned} \text{Chromium(II), }\ce{Cr^2+}\ \text{([Cr+2])} &: [\mathrm{Ar}]\,3d^4,\\ \text{Manganese(III), }\ce{Mn^3+}\ \text{([Mn+3])} &: [\mathrm{Ar}]\,3d^4. \end{aligned} \]

The weak-field qualification ensures that these \(d^4\) ions are high spin. Their transition wavelengths need not equal those of copper(II).

8.4 — Mercury complex and orbital splitting

Mercury(II), \(\ce{Hg^2+}\), [Hg+2], has configuration \[ [\mathrm{Xe}]\,4f^{14}5d^{10}. \]

The ligand is a neutral surface-tethered thiol, \(\ce{RSH}\), represented by fragment SMILES [*]S. Sulfur donates a lone pair without loss of its hydrogen: \[ \ce{Hg^2+ + 2RSH -> [Hg(RSH)2]^2+}. \]

The product is bis(thiol)mercury(II), with coordination-fragment SMILES [*][SH]->[Hg+2]<-[SH][*].

For the requested drawing:

  1. Place mercury at the origin.
  2. Place one sulfur donor on \(+z\) and the other on \(-z\).
  3. Draw a sulfur-to-mercury coordination bond from each ligand. Each sulfur also retains its bonds to hydrogen and \(R\).
  4. Make the coordination unit linear, with \(\angle\ce{S-Hg-S}=180^\circ\). Choose \(x\) and \(y\) perpendicular to this axis.

For the conventional linear crystal field, draw:

Position Orbital(s) Occupancy
Highest \(d_{z^2}\) \(\uparrow\downarrow\)
Intermediate \(d_{xz},\,d_{yz}\) \(\uparrow\downarrow\quad\uparrow\downarrow\)
Lowest \(d_{xy},\,d_{x^2-y^2}\) \(\uparrow\downarrow\quad\uparrow\downarrow\)

The \(d_{z^2}\) orbital points directly toward the two donors and experiences the greatest destabilization. The two orbitals confined to the perpendicular plane are lowest. Cylindrical symmetry about the bond axis gives the indicated degeneracies.

8.5 — True or false

(a) False. Mercury(II) is \(d^{10}\). Every \(d\) orbital is filled, so there is no vacant \(d\)-orbital state into which a \(d\) electron can be promoted.

(b) True. The surface primary amine group, \(\ce{RNH2}\), has fragment SMILES [*]N; its copper coordination can be represented locally as [*]N->[Cu+2]. Nitrogen coordination gives a ligand field similar to that of other copper(II) amine complexes when the coordination geometries are comparable, so a similar color is expected.

(c) False. Amine nitrogen donors generally produce a stronger ligand field than silanol oxygen donors. For comparable geometries, the relevant transition energies therefore increase: \[ \Delta_{\mathrm{amine}}>\Delta_{\mathrm{silanol}}. \] Since \[ E=\frac{hc}{\lambda}, \] the expected wavelength relationship is \[ \boxed{\lambda_{\max,\mathrm{amine}}< \lambda_{\max,\mathrm{silanol}}}. \] The statement gives the opposite inequality.

The answers were checked against the official answers published by the organisers.