IChO 2009 · Theory problem 1

Estimating the Avogadro constant

Many different methods have been used to determine the Avogadro constant. Three different methods are given below.

Method A – from X-ray diffraction data (modern)

The unit cell is the smallest repeating unit in a crystal structure. The unit cell of a gold crystal is found by X-ray diffraction to have the face-centred cubic unit structure (i.e. where the centre of an atom is located at each corner of a cube and in the middle of each face). The side of the unit cell is found to be 0.408 nm.

1.1 Sketch the unit cell and calculate how many \(\ce{Au}\) atoms the cell contains.

1.2 The density of \(\ce{Au}\) is \(1.93\cdot10^4\ \mathrm{kg\,m^{-3}}\). Calculate the volume and mass of the cubic unit cell.

1.3 Hence calculate the mass of a gold atom and the Avogadro constant, given that the relative atomic mass of \(\ce{Au}\) is 196.97.

Method B – from radioactive decay (Rutherford, 1911)

The radioactive decay series of \(\ce{^{226}Ra}\) is as follows:

Figure 1

The times indicated are half-lives, the units are y = years, d = days, m = minutes. The first decay, marked \(t\) above, has a much longer half-life than the others.

1.4 In the table below, identify which transformations are \(\alpha\)-decays and which are \(\beta\)-decays.

\(\alpha\)-decay \(\beta\)-decay
\(\ce{^{226}Ra -> ^{222}Rn}\)
\(\ce{^{222}Rn -> ^{218}Po}\)
\(\ce{^{218}Po -> ^{214}Pb}\)
\(\ce{^{214}Pb -> ^{214}Bi}\)
\(\ce{^{214}Bi -> ^{214}Po}\)
\(\ce{^{214}Po -> ^{210}Pb}\)
\(\ce{^{210}Pb -> ^{210}Bi}\)
\(\ce{^{210}Bi -> ^{210}Po}\)
\(\ce{^{210}Po -> ^{206}Pb}\)

1.5 A sample containing 192 mg of \(\ce{^{226}Ra}\) was purified and allowed to stand for 40 days. Identify the first isotope in the series (excluding \(\ce{Ra}\)) that has not reached a steady state.

1.6 The total rate of \(\alpha\)-decay from the sample was then determined by scintillation to be 27.7 GBq (where \(1\ \mathrm{Bq}=1\ \mathrm{count\,s^{-1}}\)). The sample was then sealed for 163 days. Calculate the number of \(\alpha\) particles produced.

1.7 At the end of the 163 days the sample was found to contain \(10.4\ \mathrm{mm^3}\) of \(\ce{He}\), measured at 101325 Pa and 273 K. Calculate the Avogadro constant from these data.

1.8 Given that thee relative isotopic mass of \(\ce{^{226}Ra}\) measured by mass spectrometry is 226.25, use the textbook value of the Avogadro constant (\(6.022\cdot10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}\)) to calculate the number of \(\ce{^{226}Ra}\) atoms in the original sample, \(n_{\ce{Ra}}\), the decay rate constant, \(\lambda\), and the half-life, \(t\), of \(\ce{^{226}Ra}\) (in years). You need only consider the decays up to but not including the isotope identified in 1.5.

Method C – dispersion of particles (Perrin, 1909)

One of the first accurate determinations of the Avogadro constant was carried out by studying the vertical distribution under gravity of colloidal particles suspended in water. In one such experiment, particles with radius \(2.12\cdot10^{-7}\ \mathrm{m}\) and density \(1.206\cdot10^3\ \mathrm{kg\,m^{-3}}\) were suspended in a tube of water at \(15\ ^\circ\mathrm{C}\). After allowing sufficient time to equilibrate, the mean numbers of particles per unit volume observed at four heights from the bottom of the tube were:

height / \(10^{-6}\ \mathrm{m}\) 5 35 65 95
mean number per unit volume 4.00 1.88 0.90 0.48

1.9 Assuming the particles to be spherical, calculate:

i) the mass, \(m\), of a particle;

ii) the mass, \(m_{\ce{H2O}}\), of the water it displaces;

iii) the effective mass, \(m^*\), of the particle in water accounting for buoyancy (i.e. taking account of the upthrust due to the displaced volume of water).

Take the density of water to be \(999\ \mathrm{kg\,m^{-3}}\).

At equilibrium, the number of particles per unit volume at different heights may be modelled according to a Boltzmann distribution:

\[ \frac{n_h}{n_{h_0}} = \exp\left[-\frac{E_h-E_{h_0}}{RT}\right] \]

where

\(n_h\) is the number of particles per unit volume at height \(h\),

\(n_{h_0}\) is the number of particles per unit volume at the reference height \(h_0\),

\(E_h\) is the gravitational potential energy per mole of particles at height \(h\) relative to the particles at the bottom of the tube,

\(R\) is the gas constant, \(8.3145\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}\).

A graph of \(\ln(n_h/n_{h_0})\) against \((h-h_0)\), based on the data in the table above, is shown below. The reference height is taken to be \(5\ \mu\mathrm{m}\) from the bottom of the tube.

Figure 2

1.10 Derive an expression for the gradient (slope) of the graph.

1.11 Determine the Avogadro constant from these data.

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 1.1: A cube with atom centres at its eight corners and six face centres; 4 atoms per unit cell.
  • 1.2: \(V_{\mathrm{cell}}=6.79\times10^{-29}\ \mathrm{m^3}\); \(m_{\mathrm{cell}}=1.31\times10^{-24}\ \mathrm{kg}\).
  • 1.3: \(m_{\mathrm{atom}}=3.28\times10^{-25}\ \mathrm{kg}\); \(N_{\mathrm A}=6.01\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}\).
  • 1.4: In table order: \(\alpha,\ \alpha,\ \alpha,\ \beta^-,\ \beta^-,\ \alpha,\ \beta^-,\ \beta^-,\ \alpha\).
  • 1.5: Lead-210, \(\ce{^{210}Pb}\).
  • 1.6: \(3.90\times10^{17}\) \(\alpha\) particles.
  • 1.7: \(N_{\mathrm A}=8.40\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}\).
  • 1.8: \(n_{\ce{Ra}}=5.11\times10^{20}\) atoms; \(\lambda=1.36\times10^{-11}\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}\); \(t=1.62\times10^3\ \mathrm{years}\).
  • 1.9: i) \(m=4.81\times10^{-17}\ \mathrm{kg}\); ii) \(m_{\ce{H2O}}=3.99\times10^{-17}\ \mathrm{kg}\); iii) \(m^*=8.26\times10^{-18}\ \mathrm{kg}\).
  • 1.10: \(\displaystyle s=-\frac{N_{\mathrm A}m^*g}{RT}\), with \(s\) in \(\mathrm{m^{-1}}\) when height is measured in metres.
  • 1.11: \(N_{\mathrm A}\approx7.1\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}\).

Solution

1.1

Sketch a cube with an atom centre at each of its eight corners and at the centre of each of its six faces. There is no atom at the body centre. Hidden edges and hidden atom positions may be indicated with dashed lines.

Each corner atom is shared by eight unit cells, while each face-centred atom is shared by two. Thus the number of atoms belonging to one unit cell is

\[ Z=8\left(\frac18\right)+6\left(\frac12\right) =\boxed{4}. \]

1.2

The cube edge is

\[ a=0.408\ \mathrm{nm}=4.08\times10^{-10}\ \mathrm{m}. \]

Therefore,

\[ V_{\mathrm{cell}}=a^3 =(4.08\times10^{-10})^3 =6.7917312\times10^{-29}\ \mathrm{m^3} \approx\boxed{6.79\times10^{-29}\ \mathrm{m^3}}. \]

Using the density,

\[ m_{\mathrm{cell}} =\rho V_{\mathrm{cell}} =(1.93\times10^4)(6.7917312\times10^{-29}) \approx\boxed{1.31\times10^{-24}\ \mathrm{kg}}. \]

1.3

The unit cell contains four gold atoms, so

\[ m_{\mathrm{atom}} =\frac{m_{\mathrm{cell}}}{4} =3.277010304\times10^{-25}\ \mathrm{kg} \approx\boxed{3.28\times10^{-25}\ \mathrm{kg}}. \]

The molar mass of gold is \(196.97\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}=0.19697\ \mathrm{kg\,mol^{-1}}\). Consequently,

\[ N_{\mathrm A} =\frac{M_{\ce{Au}}}{m_{\mathrm{atom}}} =\frac{0.19697}{3.277010304\times10^{-25}} =\boxed{6.01\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}}. \]

1.4

An \(\alpha\) particle is a helium-4 nucleus, \(\ce{^{4}He^{2+}}\), with SMILES [4He+2]. Its emission decreases the mass number by 4 and the atomic number by 2.

In \(\beta^-\) decay, the mass number is unchanged and the atomic number increases by 1. An electron and an electron antineutrino, \(\bar{\nu}_e\), are emitted.

The balanced nuclear equations are:

Balanced nuclear equation Decay
\(\ce{^{226}_{88}Ra -> ^{222}_{86}Rn + ^{4}_{2}He}\) \(\alpha\)
\(\ce{^{222}_{86}Rn -> ^{218}_{84}Po + ^{4}_{2}He}\) \(\alpha\)
\(\ce{^{218}_{84}Po -> ^{214}_{82}Pb + ^{4}_{2}He}\) \(\alpha\)
\(\ce{^{214}_{82}Pb -> ^{214}_{83}Bi + ^{0}_{-1}e}+\bar{\nu}_e\) \(\beta^-\)
\(\ce{^{214}_{83}Bi -> ^{214}_{84}Po + ^{0}_{-1}e}+\bar{\nu}_e\) \(\beta^-\)
\(\ce{^{214}_{84}Po -> ^{210}_{82}Pb + ^{4}_{2}He}\) \(\alpha\)
\(\ce{^{210}_{82}Pb -> ^{210}_{83}Bi + ^{0}_{-1}e}+\bar{\nu}_e\) \(\beta^-\)
\(\ce{^{210}_{83}Bi -> ^{210}_{84}Po + ^{0}_{-1}e}+\bar{\nu}_e\) \(\beta^-\)
\(\ce{^{210}_{84}Po -> ^{206}_{82}Pb + ^{4}_{2}He}\) \(\alpha\)

Thus every assignment follows directly from the changes in mass number and atomic number.

1.5

A daughter isotope reaches an approximate steady state when its rate of formation equals its rate of decay. With a nearly constant parent activity, this requires several daughter half-lives.

For \(\ce{^{222}Rn}\), 40 days corresponds to

\[ \frac{40}{3.825}=10.46 \]

half-lives. Its activity has therefore reached approximately

\[ 1-2^{-10.46}=0.99929 \]

of its equilibrium value. The following isotopes through \(\ce{^{214}Po}\) have much shorter half-lives and also reach approximate steady state.

The next isotope, \(\ce{^{210}Pb}\), has a half-life of 22.3 years, much longer than 40 days. It is still accumulating. Therefore the first isotope that has not reached steady state is

\[ \boxed{\ce{^{210}Pb}\text{, lead-210}}. \]

1.6

Treat the measured total \(\alpha\) activity as constant over the collection period. This uses the long half-life of radium and neglects the small changes associated with the slowly accumulating later daughters.

The elapsed time is

\[ \Delta t=163\times24\times60\times60 =1.40832\times10^7\ \mathrm{s}. \]

Hence,

\[ N_\alpha=A_\alpha\Delta t =(27.7\times10^9\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}) (1.40832\times10^7\ \mathrm{s}) =\boxed{3.90\times10^{17}\text{ particles}}. \]

1.7

Each \(\alpha\) particle acquires two electrons to become one helium-4 atom, \(\ce{^{4}He}\), SMILES [4He]:

\[ \ce{^{4}He^{2+} + 2e- -> ^{4}He}. \]

Thus the number of helium atoms collected equals the number of \(\alpha\) particles produced.

The gas volume is

\[ V=10.4\ \mathrm{mm^3}=1.04\times10^{-8}\ \mathrm{m^3}. \]

From the ideal-gas equation,

\[ n_{\ce{He}} =\frac{PV}{RT} =\frac{(101325)(1.04\times10^{-8})} {(8.3145)(273)} =4.64249\times10^{-7}\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

Therefore,

\[ N_{\mathrm A} =\frac{N_\alpha}{n_{\ce{He}}} =\frac{3.9010464\times10^{17}} {4.64249\times10^{-7}} =\boxed{8.40\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}}. \]

1.8

Using the stated isotopic mass and textbook Avogadro constant, the initial number of radium atoms is

\[ n_{\ce{Ra}} =\frac{0.192\ \mathrm{g}} {226.25\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}} (6.022\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}) =\boxed{5.11\times10^{20}\text{ atoms}}. \]

Before decay of \(\ce{^{210}Pb}\), the four \(\alpha\)-emitting nuclides are

\[ \ce{^{226}Ra},\qquad \ce{^{222}Rn},\qquad \ce{^{218}Po},\qquad \ce{^{214}Po}. \]

At steady state, the activity of each of these daughters equals the radium activity. The total \(\alpha\) activity is therefore four times the radium activity:

\[ A_\alpha=4A_{\ce{Ra}}=4\lambda n_{\ce{Ra}}. \]

Thus,

\[ A_{\ce{Ra}}=\frac{27.7\times10^9}{4} =6.925\times10^9\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}, \]

and

\[ \lambda =\frac{6.925\times10^9} {5.1103823\times10^{20}} =\boxed{1.36\times10^{-11}\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}}. \]

For first-order radioactive decay,

\[ t=\frac{\ln2}{\lambda} =5.115\times10^{10}\ \mathrm{s}. \]

Taking one year as 365 days,

\[ t=\frac{5.115\times10^{10}} {365\times86400} =\boxed{1.62\times10^3\ \mathrm{years}}. \]

1.9

The volume of a spherical particle is

\[ V_p=\frac43\pi r^3 =\frac43\pi(2.12\times10^{-7})^3 =3.99113\times10^{-20}\ \mathrm{m^3}. \]

i) The particle mass is

\[ m=\rho_pV_p =(1.206\times10^3)(3.99113\times10^{-20}) =\boxed{4.81\times10^{-17}\ \mathrm{kg}}. \]

ii) The displaced water, \(\ce{H2O}\) (SMILES O), occupies the same volume as the particle:

\[ m_{\ce{H2O}} =\rho_wV_p =(999)(3.99113\times10^{-20}) =\boxed{3.99\times10^{-17}\ \mathrm{kg}}. \]

iii) The upward buoyant force equals the weight of the displaced water. Therefore,

\[ m^*g=mg-m_{\ce{H2O}}g, \]

so, retaining unrounded values,

\[ m^*=(\rho_p-\rho_w)V_p =(1206-999)(3.99113\times10^{-20}) =\boxed{8.26\times10^{-18}\ \mathrm{kg}}. \]

1.10

Accounting for buoyancy, the potential-energy increase per particle between \(h_0\) and \(h\) is \(m^*g(h-h_0)\). The corresponding increase per mole is

\[ E_h-E_{h_0}=N_{\mathrm A}m^*g(h-h_0). \]

Substituting into the given Boltzmann distribution and taking natural logarithms gives

\[ \ln\left(\frac{n_h}{n_{h_0}}\right) =-\frac{N_{\mathrm A}m^*g}{RT}(h-h_0). \]

Hence the gradient with respect to height in metres is

\[ \boxed{ s=-\frac{N_{\mathrm A}m^*g}{RT} =-\frac{4\pi r^3(\rho_p-\rho_w)gN_{\mathrm A}}{3RT} }. \]

Its units are \(\mathrm{m^{-1}}\). The negative sign expresses the decrease in particle concentration with increasing height.

For the displayed numerical horizontal coordinate \(x=(h-h_0)/(1\ \mu\mathrm{m})\), the gradient is

\[ \frac{\mathrm d}{\mathrm dx} \ln\left(\frac{n_h}{n_{h_0}}\right) =-\frac{N_{\mathrm A}m^*g(10^{-6}\ \mathrm{m})}{RT}. \]

1.11

The drawn line passes approximately through \((0,0)\) and \((100\ \mu\mathrm{m},-2.4)\). Therefore,

\[ s\approx\frac{-2.4}{100\times10^{-6}\ \mathrm{m}} =-2.4\times10^4\ \mathrm{m^{-1}}. \]

Rearranging the expression from 1.10,

\[ N_{\mathrm A}=-\frac{sRT}{m^*g}. \]

Using \(T=15+273.15=288.15\ \mathrm{K}\) and \(g=9.81\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-2}}\),

\[ N_{\mathrm A} \approx \frac{(2.4\times10^4)(8.3145)(288.15)} {(8.26165\times10^{-18})(9.81)} =7.09\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}. \]

To the precision justified by reading the graph,

\[ \boxed{N_{\mathrm A}\approx7.1\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}}. \]

The solution was checked against the official solution.