IChO 2006 · Theory problem 6

Electrochemistry

Water is a very stable molecule, abundant on earth and essential for life. As such, water was long thought to be a chemical element. However, soon after the invention of a voltaic cell in 1800, Nicholson and Carlyle decomposed water into hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis.

6.1 Water can be thought of as hydrogen oxidized by oxygen. Thus, hydrogen can be recovered by reduction of water, using an aqueous solution of sodium sulfate, at a platinum electrode connected to the negative terminal of a battery. The solution near the electrode becomes basic. Write a balanced half-reaction for the reduction of water.

6.2 Water can also be thought of as oxygen reduced by hydrogen. Thus, oxygen can be recovered by oxidation of water at the \(\ce{Pt}\) electrode connected to the positive terminal. Write a balanced half-reaction for the oxidation of water.

6.3 When copper is used at both electrodes, gas is generated only at one electrode during the initial stage of electrolysis. Write the half-reaction at the electrode that does not generate gas.

Another species in solution that can be reduced is sodium ion. The reduction of sodium ion to metallic sodium does not occur in aqueous solution because water is reduced first. However, as Humphrey Davy discovered in 1807, sodium can be made by electrolysis of fused sodium chloride.

6.4 Based on these observations, connect the half-reactions with the standard reduction potential (in volts).

Reduction of copper ion (\(\ce{Cu^2+}\)) \(+0.340\)
Reduction of oxygen \(-2.710\)
Reduction of water \(-0.830\)
Reduction of sodium ion (\(\ce{Na+}\)) \(0.000\)
Reduction of hydrogen ion \(+1.230\)

The electrode potential is affected by other reactions taking place around the electrode. The potential of the \(\ce{Cu^2+}/\ce{Cu}\) electrode in a 0.100 M \(\ce{Cu^2+}\) solution changes as \(\ce{Cu(OH)2}\) precipitates. Answer with 3 significant figures for the following problems. The temperature is \(25\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\). Note that \(K_w=1.00\times10^{-14}\) at \(25\,^\circ\mathrm{C}\).

6.5 Precipitation of \(\ce{Cu(OH)2}\) begins at \(\mathrm{pH}=4.84\). Determine the solubility product of \(\ce{Cu(OH)2}\).

6.6 Calculate the standard reduction potential for \(\ce{Cu(OH)2(s) + 2e- -> Cu(s) + 2OH-}\).

6.7 Calculate the electrode potential at \(\mathrm{pH}=1.00\).

Lithium cobalt oxide and specialty carbon are active ingredients for the positive and negative electrodes, respectively, of a rechargeable lithium battery. During the charge recharge cycles, the following reversible half-reactions occur.

Figure 1

The total amount of energy a battery can store, is rated in mAh. A battery rated at 1500 mAh can power a device drawing 100 milliamps for 15 hours.

6.8 Graphite has lithium intercalation sites between its layers. Assuming a maximum 6 : 1 carbon-to-lithium intercalation stoichiometry, calculate the theoretical charge capacity of 1.00 gram of graphite to intercalate lithium. Answer in mAh/g with 3 significant figures.

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 6.1: \(\ce{2H2O(l) + 2e- -> H2(g) + 2OH-(aq)}\).
  • 6.2: \(\ce{2H2O(l) -> O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e-}\).
  • 6.3: \(\ce{Cu(s) -> Cu^2+(aq) + 2e-}\).
  • 6.4: Copper ion: \(+0.340\ \mathrm{V}\); oxygen: \(+1.230\ \mathrm{V}\); water: \(-0.830\ \mathrm{V}\); sodium ion: \(-2.710\ \mathrm{V}\); hydrogen ion: \(0.000\ \mathrm{V}\).
  • 6.5: \(K_{\mathrm{sp}}=4.79\times10^{-20}\).
  • 6.6: \(E^\circ=-0.231\ \mathrm{V}\).
  • 6.7: \(E=+0.310\ \mathrm{V}\).
  • 6.8: \(\boxed{372\ \mathrm{mAh\,g^{-1}}}\).

All electrode potentials are relative to the standard hydrogen electrode.

Solution

The molecular and ionic species used below have the following names and SMILES:

Species Name SMILES
\(\ce{H2O}\) Water O
\(\ce{H2}\) Hydrogen [H][H]
\(\ce{O2}\) Oxygen O=O
\(\ce{H+}\) Hydrogen ion, or proton [H+]
\(\ce{OH-}\) Hydroxide ion [OH-]
\(\ce{Cu^2+}\) Copper(II) ion [Cu+2]
\(\ce{Na+}\) Sodium ion [Na+]
\(\ce{Li+}\) Lithium ion [Li+]

Copper(II) hydroxide, \(\ce{Cu(OH)2}\), can be represented compositionally as [Cu+2].[OH-].[OH-]. This specifies its ionic formula but does not describe its solid-state coordination or crystal structure. Metals, graphite, and lithium-intercalated graphite are extended solids without finite molecular SMILES. The oxygen SMILES specifies connectivity but does not encode its triplet ground state.

For the calculations, use the usual ideal-solution approximation, \(a_i\simeq[i]/c^\circ\), where \(c^\circ=1\ \mathrm{mol\,L^{-1}}\), and unit activities for pure solids and liquid water. Standard constants are

\[ R=8.31446\ \mathrm{J\,mol^{-1}\,K^{-1}},\qquad F=96485.3\ \mathrm{C\,mol^{-1}},\qquad M_{\ce C}=12.01\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}. \]

At \(T=298.15\ \mathrm{K}\),

\[ \frac{RT\ln 10}{F}=0.0591593\ \mathrm{V}. \]

6.1 — Reduction of water

The negative electrode supplies electrons and is the cathode. Hydrogen in water is reduced from oxidation state \(+1\) to \(0\):

\[ \boxed{\ce{2H2O(l) + 2e- -> H2(g) + 2OH-(aq)}}. \]

Both atoms and charge are balanced. The production of hydroxide ions explains why the solution near this electrode becomes basic.

6.2 — Oxidation of water

The positive electrode removes electrons and is the anode. Oxygen in water is oxidized from oxidation state \(-2\) to \(0\):

\[ \boxed{\ce{2H2O(l) -> O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e-}}. \]

The production of hydrogen ions makes the solution near this electrode acidic.

6.3 — Copper electrodes

At the copper anode, copper itself is oxidized instead of water:

\[ \boxed{\ce{Cu(s) -> Cu^2+(aq) + 2e-}}. \]

Thus, the anode dissolves without generating gas. Initially, before copper(II) ions reach the cathode in appreciable amounts, water reduction there produces hydrogen as in part 6.1.

6.4 — Identification of the standard reduction potentials

The correct connections, with the corresponding balanced reduction half-reactions, are:

Reduction Half-reaction \(E^\circ/\mathrm{V}\)
Copper ion \(\ce{Cu^2+(aq) + 2e- -> Cu(s)}\) \(+0.340\)
Oxygen \(\ce{O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e- -> 2H2O(l)}\) \(+1.230\)
Water \(\ce{2H2O(l) + 2e- -> H2(g) + 2OH-(aq)}\) \(-0.830\)
Sodium ion \(\ce{Na+(aq) + e- -> Na(s)}\) \(-2.710\)
Hydrogen ion \(\ce{2H+(aq) + 2e- -> H2(g)}\) \(0.000\)

The hydrogen-ion reduction potential is zero by definition of the standard hydrogen electrode.

Water is reduced more readily than sodium ions, so its reduction potential is more positive. The two negative values therefore belong to water, \(-0.830\ \mathrm{V}\), and sodium ions, \(-2.710\ \mathrm{V}\), respectively.

Copper dissolves at the anode in preference to oxygen evolution. This identifies copper oxidation as the easier of those two oxidations and assigns the lower remaining reduction potential to the copper couple: \(+0.340\ \mathrm{V}\). Oxygen reduction receives \(+1.230\ \mathrm{V}\).

The oxygen value refers to the acidic half-reaction shown in the table; the water-reduction value refers to the half-reaction producing hydroxide ions.

6.5 — Solubility product of copper(II) hydroxide

The dissolution equilibrium is

\[ \ce{Cu(OH)2(s) <=> Cu^2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)}. \]

At the onset of precipitation, the copper(II) concentration is still \(0.100\ \mathrm{mol\,L^{-1}}\). Since \(K_w=1.00\times10^{-14}\),

\[ \mathrm{pOH}=14.00-4.84=9.16, \]

so

\[ [\ce{OH-}] =10^{-9.16}\ \mathrm{mol\,L^{-1}} =6.9183\times10^{-10}\ \mathrm{mol\,L^{-1}}. \]

Hence,

\[ \begin{aligned} K_{\mathrm{sp}} &=a(\ce{Cu^2+})\,a(\ce{OH-})^2\\ &=(0.100)(6.9183\times10^{-10})^2\\ &=4.7863\times10^{-20}. \end{aligned} \]

Therefore,

\[ \boxed{K_{\mathrm{sp}}=4.79\times10^{-20}}. \]

This is the dimensionless equilibrium constant using the stated standard concentration; the corresponding concentration product has units \(\mathrm{mol^3\,L^{-3}}\).

6.6 — Standard reduction potential of copper(II) hydroxide

Add the dissolution equilibrium to copper(II) reduction:

\[ \begin{aligned} \ce{Cu(OH)2(s)}&\ce{-> Cu^2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)},\\ \ce{Cu^2+(aq) + 2e-}&\ce{-> Cu(s)}. \end{aligned} \]

The sum is the required half-reaction:

\[ \ce{Cu(OH)2(s) + 2e- -> Cu(s) + 2OH-(aq)}. \]

Standard Gibbs energies are additive:

\[ \Delta G^\circ_{\mathrm{diss}}=-RT\ln K_{\mathrm{sp}}, \qquad \Delta G^\circ_{\mathrm{Cu}}=-2F E^\circ_{\ce{Cu^2+}/\ce{Cu}}. \]

Thus,

\[ -2F E^\circ =-RT\ln K_{\mathrm{sp}} -2F E^\circ_{\ce{Cu^2+}/\ce{Cu}}, \]

giving

\[ E^\circ =E^\circ_{\ce{Cu^2+}/\ce{Cu}} +\frac{RT}{2F}\ln K_{\mathrm{sp}}. \]

Here \(\log_{10}K_{\mathrm{sp}}=-19.32\), so

\[ \begin{aligned} E^\circ &=0.340+\frac{0.0591593}{2}(-19.32)\\ &=-0.231479\ \mathrm{V}. \end{aligned} \]

To three significant figures,

\[ \boxed{E^\circ=-0.231\ \mathrm{V}}. \]

6.7 — Electrode potential at pH 1.00

At \(\mathrm{pH}=1.00\),

\[ [\ce{H+}]=0.100\ \mathrm{mol\,L^{-1}}, \qquad [\ce{OH-}]=1.00\times10^{-13}\ \mathrm{mol\,L^{-1}}. \]

The ionic activity product is

\[ Q_{\mathrm{sp}} =(0.100)(1.00\times10^{-13})^2 =1.00\times10^{-27} <K_{\mathrm{sp}}. \]

Consequently, copper(II) hydroxide does not precipitate, and the copper(II) concentration remains \(0.100\ \mathrm{mol\,L^{-1}}\). Use the Nernst equation for

\[ \ce{Cu^2+(aq) + 2e- -> Cu(s)}: \]

\[ \begin{aligned} E &=E^\circ_{\ce{Cu^2+}/\ce{Cu}} +\frac{RT}{2F}\ln a(\ce{Cu^2+})\\ &=0.340+\frac{0.0591593}{2}\log_{10}(0.100)\\ &=0.310420\ \mathrm{V}. \end{aligned} \]

Therefore,

\[ \boxed{E=+0.310\ \mathrm{V}}. \]

6.8 — Theoretical charge capacity of graphite

At the maximum carbon-to-lithium ratio of \(6:1\), intercalation can be written as

\[ \ce{6C(s) + Li+ + e- -> LiC6(s)}. \]

Each intercalated lithium ion requires one electron. Thus, six moles of carbon correspond to one mole of transferred electrons. Lithium occupies sites between the graphite layers.

For \(1.00\ \mathrm{g}\) of graphite,

\[ n_e =\frac{1.00\ \mathrm{g}} {6(12.01\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}})} =0.0138773\ \mathrm{mol}. \]

The charge is

\[ Q=n_eF =(0.0138773\ \mathrm{mol}) (96485.3\ \mathrm{C\,mol^{-1}}) =1338.96\ \mathrm{C}. \]

Since

\[ 1\ \mathrm{mAh} =(10^{-3}\ \mathrm{A})(3600\ \mathrm{s}) =3.6\ \mathrm{C}, \]

the specific capacity is

\[ \frac{Q}{m} =\frac{1338.96}{3.6(1.00)} =371.933\ \mathrm{mAh\,g^{-1}}. \]

Therefore,

\[ \boxed{\frac{Q}{m}=372\ \mathrm{mAh\,g^{-1}}}. \]

Although the statement calls the rating an amount of energy, mAh measures electric charge. Calculating stored energy would also require the battery voltage.

The solution was checked against the official solution.