IChO 2002 · Theory problem 10

Vehicle Traction Batteries

Battery-powered electric vehicles (EV’s) are likely to become increasingly common in the next 50 years because of growing concern over pollution caused by vehicles using combustion engines. The reason for the current meagre commercial success of EV’s is that the battery specifications must have a performance and cost profile comparable to conventionally powered vehicles.

Lead-acid batteries are extensively used as portable power sources for vehicles and traction. A lead-acid battery capable of efficient recharging has an energy density of 45 Wh/kg.

In the current evolution of EV batteries, the most promising long-term solution is the rechargeable light weight lithium-ion battery. Such batteries are under intensive investigation worldwide and hold also promise for the storage of electricity from solar cells. Their weight is 1/3 of a lead-acid battery. Lithium is used as a negative electrode. It has a high specific capacity and electrode potential. A common positive electrode material is the environmentally benign spinel-type \(\ce{LiMn2O4}\). The spinel structure comprises a matrix of cubic close-packed oxide ions, stabilised by lithium ions in tetrahedral sites and manganese ions in octahedral sites. In \(\ce{LiMn2O4}\) half of the manganese ions has an oxidation state +3 and half the oxidation state +4.

A lead-acid battery is represented by:

\[ \ce{Pb(s)} \mid \ce{PbSO4(s)} \mid \ce{H2SO4(aq)} \mid \ce{PbSO4(s)} \mid \ce{PbO2(s)} \mid (\ce{Pb(s)}) \]

A lithium battery is represented by:

\[ \ce{Li(s)} \mid \ce{Li+}\text{-conducting (solid) electrolyte(s)} \mid \ce{LiMn2O4(s)} \]

Upon discharge the insertion product \(\ce{Li2Mn2O4}\) is formed. Charging the battery leads to the products \(\ce{Li(s)}\) and \(\ce{LiMn2O4}\).

10.1 Give the electrochemical reactions at the electrodes of the lead-acid battery during discharge.

10.2 Give the electrochemical reactions at the electrodes of the lithium-ion battery upon discharge.

10.3 Give the coordination numbers of the lithium ions and of the manganese ions in the spinel structure of \(\ce{LiMn2O4}\).

A typical family car of 1000 kg requires at least 5 kWh of energy to move 50 km, which corresponds with the consumption of about 5.0 litres or 3.78 kg of petrol. This conventional car has a petrol tank volume of 50 L. The weight of the tank is 10 kg. The fuel consumption is \(10\ \mathrm{km\,L^{-1}}\).

10.4 Calculate the extra weight of the car if the petrol tank is replaced by an equivalent battery in an EV based on (a) lead-acid battery and (b) lithium battery. Assume that in all cases the engine efficiency is the same. Calculate:

(a) Extra weight of a lead-acid battery car.

(b) Extra weight of a lithium battery car.

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 10.1 Negative electrode (anode): \[ \ce{Pb(s) + SO4^2-(aq) -> PbSO4(s) + 2e-} \] Positive electrode (cathode): \[ \ce{PbO2(s) + SO4^2-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2e- -> PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)} \]

  • 10.2 Negative electrode (anode): \[ \ce{Li(s) -> Li+ + e-} \] Positive electrode (cathode): \[ \ce{LiMn2O4(s) + Li+ + e- -> Li2Mn2O4(s)} \]

  • 10.3 Lithium ions: 4, tetrahedral coordination. Manganese ions: 6, octahedral coordination.

  • 10.4(a) Nominal minimum extra mass: approximately \(1.1\times10^3\ \mathrm{kg}\); the calculation gives \(1063.3\ldots\ \mathrm{kg}\).

  • 10.4(b) Nominal minimum extra mass: approximately \(3.2\times10^2\ \mathrm{kg}\); the calculation gives \(322.6\ldots\ \mathrm{kg}\).

Solution

10.1 — Lead-acid battery

During discharge, oxidation occurs at the negative electrode and reduction occurs at the positive electrode.

At the negative electrode, lead metal is oxidized from oxidation state 0 to +2. It combines with sulfate to form solid lead(II) sulfate:

\[ \boxed{\ce{Pb(s) + SO4^2-(aq) -> PbSO4(s) + 2e-}} \]

At the positive electrode, lead in lead(IV) oxide is reduced from +4 to +2, also forming lead(II) sulfate. Oxygen is balanced with water and hydrogen with hydrogen ions:

\[ \boxed{\ce{PbO2(s) + SO4^2-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2e- -> PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)}} \]

Each half-reaction transfers two electrons. Adding them gives the overall discharge reaction, written using sulfuric acid:

\[ \ce{Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) -> 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)} \]

The molecular and ionic species used here have the following names and SMILES:

Species Name SMILES
\(\ce{SO4^2-}\) Sulfate ion [O-]S(=O)(=O)[O-]
\(\ce{H+}\) Hydrogen ion (proton) [H+]
\(\ce{H2O}\) Water O
\(\ce{H2SO4}\) Sulfuric acid OS(=O)(=O)O

The aqueous hydrogen-ion notation represents a solvated proton. The metallic and crystalline electrode materials have extended structures, whose lattices are not specified by molecular SMILES.

10.2 — Lithium battery

At the negative electrode, lithium metal is oxidized to a lithium ion, releasing one electron:

\[ \boxed{\ce{Li(s) -> Li+ + e-}} \]

The lithium ion passes through the solid electrolyte. At the positive electrode, lithium-ion insertion and electron uptake convert lithium manganese oxide into the stated insertion product:

\[ \boxed{\ce{LiMn2O4(s) + Li+ + e- -> Li2Mn2O4(s)}} \]

To identify the reduction, use charge neutrality. Taking lithium as +1 and oxygen as −2, the sum of the manganese oxidation states is:

\[ \begin{aligned} \ce{LiMn2O4}:&\qquad 8-1=7,\\ \ce{Li2Mn2O4}:&\qquad 8-2=6. \end{aligned} \]

Thus, the initial manganese(III)/manganese(IV) pair becomes two manganese(III) centres. One electron is accepted per formula unit, formally:

\[ \ce{Mn^4+ + e- -> Mn^3+}. \]

The overall discharge reaction is therefore:

\[ \ce{Li(s) + LiMn2O4(s) -> Li2Mn2O4(s)}. \]

The ions are lithium ion, \(\ce{Li+}\), [Li+]; manganese(III) ion, \(\ce{Mn^3+}\), [Mn+3]; and manganese(IV) ion, \(\ce{Mn^4+}\), [Mn+4]. The manganese ions occupy sites within the oxide lattice; these SMILES specify their formal charges but do not describe that lattice.

10.3 — Coordination numbers

The coordination number is the number of nearest neighbouring oxide ions around a cation. An oxide ion, \(\ce{O^2-}\), has SMILES [O-2].

  • Lithium ions occupy tetrahedral sites: each has four nearest oxide-ion neighbours at the vertices of a tetrahedron. Hence, \[ \boxed{\mathrm{CN}(\ce{Li+})=4}. \]

  • Manganese ions occupy octahedral sites: each has six nearest oxide-ion neighbours at the vertices of an octahedron. Hence, \[ \boxed{\mathrm{CN}(\ce{Mn^3+})=\mathrm{CN}(\ce{Mn^4+})=6}. \]

These coordination geometries are properties of the crystal structure and are not conveyed by the individual-ion SMILES.

10.4 — Extra vehicle mass

An equivalent battery must provide the energy needed for the range obtained from a full petrol tank:

\[ R=(50\ \mathrm{L})(10\ \mathrm{km\,L^{-1}}) =500\ \mathrm{km}. \]

Using the stated minimum energy requirement,

\[ E_{\min} =\frac{5\ \mathrm{kWh}}{50\ \mathrm{km}} (500\ \mathrm{km}) =50\ \mathrm{kWh} =5.0\times10^4\ \mathrm{Wh}. \]

The petrol mass in the full tank is

\[ m_{\mathrm{petrol}} =(50\ \mathrm{L}) \left(\frac{3.78\ \mathrm{kg}}{5.0\ \mathrm{L}}\right) =37.8\ \mathrm{kg}. \]

Replacing the tank and its fuel removes

\[ m_{\mathrm{removed}}=10+37.8=47.8\ \mathrm{kg}. \]

Consequently,

\[ \Delta m=m_{\mathrm{battery}}-47.8\ \mathrm{kg}. \]

The equal-efficiency assumption requires no additional relative efficiency correction. The calculation uses the stated energy consumption; the problem gives no relation for correcting it as vehicle mass increases.

10.4(a) — Lead-acid battery

With an energy density of \(45\ \mathrm{Wh\,kg^{-1}}\),

\[ m_{\mathrm{lead\text{-}acid}} =\frac{5.0\times10^4\ \mathrm{Wh}} {45\ \mathrm{Wh\,kg^{-1}}} =1111.1\ldots\ \mathrm{kg}. \]

Therefore,

\[ \boxed{ \Delta m_{\mathrm{lead\text{-}acid}} =1111.1\ldots-47.8 =1063.3\ldots\ \mathrm{kg} \approx1.1\times10^3\ \mathrm{kg} }. \]

10.4(b) — Lithium battery

For the same stored energy, the lithium battery has one-third the mass of the lead-acid battery:

\[ m_{\mathrm{lithium}} =\frac{1111.1\ldots}{3} =370.37\ldots\ \mathrm{kg}. \]

Therefore,

\[ \boxed{ \Delta m_{\mathrm{lithium}} =370.37\ldots-47.8 =322.57\ldots\ \mathrm{kg} \approx3.2\times10^2\ \mathrm{kg} }. \]

These are nominal minimum estimates because the stated energy requirement is “at least” 5 kWh per 50 km.

The solution was checked against the official solution.