IChO 2001 · Theory problem 7

Peptides and Proteins

[In the amino-acid tables, S1–S8 refer to the structure figures reproduced immediately below each table.]

PROBLEM 7

Peptides and Proteins

Figure 1

Protein folding

Proteins (polypeptides) are known to assume a variety of backbone conformations. In one conformation, the backbone is almost fully extended arrangement (as in a parallel or anti-parallel β-sheet), and in another conformation it is in a fully folded arrangement (as in an α-helix).

7.1 The end-to-end distance in a hexapeptide when it is in a fully extended conformation is approximately:

(a) \(10\ \text{Å}\) ☐
(b) \(15\ \text{Å}\) ☐
(c) \(20\ \text{Å}\) ☐
(d) \(25\ \text{Å}\) ☐

(Mark X in the correct box.)

7.2 Assuming that the following hexapeptide is a α-helix conformation, draw a connecting arrow between an oxygen atom and an amide \(\ce{NH}\) with which it is hydrogen bonded.

7.3 The following hexapeptides (A and B) display contrasting conformations in water at pH 7.0, especially when their serine hydroxyls are phosphorylated. A is moderately helical and it becomes a stronger helix on serine phosphorylation. B is weakly helical and it is completely disorded on serine phosphorylation. Draw connecting arrows to indicate the interactions between the residues that are responsible for this differing behaviour.

Consider the following process of folding/unfolding of a tripeptide segment in a large protein. The free energy change (\(\Delta G\)) will depend on the interaction of the unfolded tripeptide with the solvent (water) and with the rest of the protein in the folded state (see below). Assume that the tripeptide is made up of one non-polar (hydrophobic; shaded) and two polar (hydrophilic; unshaded) residues. Assume the following approximate changes in the interaction free energies :

(a) a non-polar residue and the solvent (water): \(\Delta G=+8\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)

(b) a non-polar residue and the rest of the protein: \(\Delta G=-4\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)

(c) a polar residue and the solvent (water): \(\Delta G=-16\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)

(d) a polar residue and the rest of the protein: \(\Delta G=-14\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\)

Figure 2

7.4 Calculate \(\Delta G\) for the folding of the tripeptide segment.

7.5 Calculate \(\Delta G\) for the folding of the tripeptide segment if all the three residues are polar.

β - lactamase and drug resistance

Penicillins are effective drugs in combating bacterial infections. An alarming development over the years has, however, been the emergence of drug resistant bacteria. Penicillin resistance arises due to the secretion of an enzyme called (3-lactamase (also known as penicillinase), which inactivates penicillin by opening its (3-lactam ring. The mechanism for this (3-lactam ring opening involves the nucleophilic attack by serine-\(\ce{OH}\) at the active site of the enzyme as shown below.

Figure 3

An attempt was made to characterize the b–lactamase from Staphylococcus aureus. When the pure enzyme was treated with a radiolabelled [\(\ce{^{32}P}\)] phosphorylating agent, only the active site serine got labelled. On analysis, this serine {molecular mass = 105 mass units (Da)} constituted 0.35% by weight of the b–lactamase.

7.6 Estimate the minimal molecular mass of this b–lactamase.

7.7 The approximate number of amino acid residues present in a protein of this size is :

(a) 100 ☐
(b) 150 ☐
(c) 275 ☐
(d) 375 ☐

[Mark X in the correct box.]

To map its active site, the b–lactamase was hydrolysed using trypsin, a specific enzyme. This resulted in a hexapeptide P1 containing the active site serine. Amino acid analysis revealed the following in equimolar proportion : Glu, Leu, Lys, Met, Phe and Ser. Treatment of P1 with Edman’s reagent (phenyl isothiocyanate) yielded phenyl thiohydantoin (PTH) derivative of phenyalanine and a peptide P2.

Treatment of P1 with cyanogen bromide (\(\ce{CNBr}\)) gave an acidic tetrapeptide P3 and a dipeptide P4.

Treatment of P2 with 1–fluoro–2,4–dinitrobenzene, followed by complete hydrolysis, yielded N–2,4–dinitrophenyl–Glu. P1, P2, and P3 contain the active site serine.

7.8 From the above information, deduce the amino acid sequence of P1, P2, P3 and P4.

7.9 Calculate the molecular mass of P3 in mass units (Da) from the information given in the attached Table.

The β–lactamase active site provides a unique microenvironment that makes the catalytic serine–\(\ce{OH}\) an unusually reactive nucleophile. The first order rate constant for β–lactamase catalysed reaction is \(350\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}\). For penicillin hydrolysis by free serine–\(\ce{OH}\) (at \(1\ \mathrm{M}\)) in solution, the pseudo first order rate constant is \(0.5\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}\).

7.10 From the information above, calculate the effective concentration of this nucleophile at the enzyme active site?

A molecule competing with penicillin for binding to the b–lactamase active site can inhibit the enzyme. Dissociation constants (\(K_D\)) for the inhibitor–lactamase complex for three different inhibitors are given below :

Inhibitor Dissociation constant (\(K_D\))
A \(2.0\times10^{-3}\)
B \(1.0\times10^{-6}\)
C \(5.0\times10^{-9}\)

7.11 Indicate which of these inhibitors is most effective in protecting penicillin against β–lactamase. [Mark X in the correct box]

A ☐
B ☐
C ☐

A β–lactamase inhibitor was designed rationally. On binding to the enzyme active site, a nucleophilic attack by the \(\ce{OH}\) group of serine resulted in the opening of the β–lactam moiety of the inhibitor and elimination of \(\ce{Br^-}\). A reactive electrophile is generated as a result and it captures an active site residue X, inactivating the enzyme.

7.12 Based on the above information, identify the electrophile (A) generated and the final product (B) formed in the enzyme inactivation by the inhibitor shown.

Table

Amino Acid Structure Molecular mass (Da)
Glu – Glutamic acid S1 147
Hms – Homoserine S2 119
Leu – Leucine S3 131
Met – Methionine S4 149
Lys – Lysine S5 146
Phe – Phenylalanine S6 165

S1:

Figure 4

S2:

Figure 5

S3:

Figure 6

S4:

Figure 7

S5:

Figure 8

S6:

Figure 9

Table (continued)

Amino Acid Structure Molecular mass (Da)
Arg – Arginine S7 174
Ser – Serine S8 105

S7:

Figure 10

S8:

Figure 11

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 7.1: (c), approximately \(20\ \text{Å}\).
  • 7.2: Connect the carbonyl oxygen of residue \(i\) to the amide hydrogen of residue \(i+4\). For the hexapeptide: \(1\rightarrow5\) and \(2\rightarrow6\).
  • 7.3: Phosphorylation introduces negative charge. Favorable phosphate–cation interactions can strengthen A’s helix; unfavorable electrostatic interactions can destabilize B’s helix. The exact interacting residues cannot be identified without the missing sequences.
  • 7.4: \(\boxed{\Delta G_{\mathrm{fold}}=-8\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}}\).
  • 7.5: \(\boxed{\Delta G_{\mathrm{fold}}=+6\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}}\).
  • 7.6: \(\boxed{M_{\min}=3.0\times10^{4}\ \mathrm{Da}=30\ \mathrm{kDa}}\).
  • 7.7: (c), approximately 275 residues.
  • 7.8: Sequences, written from N-terminus to C-terminus:
  • P1: Phe–Glu–Ser–Met–Leu–Lys.
  • P2: Glu–Ser–Met–Leu–Lys.
  • P3: Phe–Glu–Ser–Hms, using the homoserine form.
  • P4: Leu–Lys.
  • 7.9: \(\boxed{M(\mathrm{P3})=482\ \mathrm{Da}}\) for the homoserine form indicated by the table.
  • 7.10: \(\boxed{c_{\mathrm{eff}}=7\times10^{2}\ \mathrm{mol\,L^{-1}}}\).
  • 7.11: C, which has the smallest \(K_D\).
  • 7.12: A is the inhibitor-derived electrophilic intermediate generated after β-lactam opening and bromide elimination; B is its covalent capture product with residue X. Their specific structures cannot be determined without the missing inhibitor drawing.

Solution

7.1 — Length of the extended hexapeptide

An extended peptide backbone contributes approximately \(3.3\)–\(3.5\ \text{Å}\) along the chain per residue. Thus the approximate length of six residues is

\[ L\approx6(3.3\text{–}3.5)\ \text{Å} \approx20\text{–}21\ \text{Å}. \]

The appropriate choice is therefore (c), \(20\ \text{Å}\). This is an approximate chain length, rather than a distance between precisely specified terminal atoms.

7.2 — Hydrogen bonds in an α-helix

Number the residues from the N-terminus to the C-terminus. The characteristic α-helical hydrogen bond connects

\[ \text{carbonyl O of residue }i \quad\cdots\quad \text{H–N of residue }i+4. \]

For six residues, the two possible internal pairs are:

  • Carbonyl oxygen of residue 1 with the amide hydrogen of residue 5.
  • Carbonyl oxygen of residue 2 with the amide hydrogen of residue 6.

On the answer-sheet structure, draw the connecting arrows between those atoms. The carbonyl oxygen is the hydrogen-bond acceptor, and the amide group is the donor. These connections describe the helix’s spatial arrangement; ordinary SMILES does not encode that conformation or its hydrogen bonds.

7.3 — Effect of serine phosphorylation

At pH 7, an unmodified serine side chain is neutral. Its phosphate ester is negatively charged, predominantly as the dianionic phosphate group. Phosphorylation therefore changes both hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions.

The relevant amino-acid structures are given below as free amino-acid ions. In an actual peptide, their α-amino and α-carboxyl groups instead participate in the backbone.

Name SMILES
L-Serine, zwitterion [NH3+][C@@H](CO)C(=O)[O-]
O-Phospho-L-serine, with a dianionic phosphate group [NH3+][C@@H](COP(=O)([O-])[O-])C(=O)[O-]
L-Arginine, protonated guanidinium form [NH3+][C@@H](CCCNC(=[NH2+])N)C(=O)[O-]
L-Lysine, protonated side-chain amino group [NH3+][C@@H](CCCC[NH3+])C(=O)[O-]
L-Glutamate [NH3+][C@@H](CCC(=O)[O-])C(=O)[O-]

An electrostatic explanation consistent with the observations is:

  • A: The phosphate group approaches a positively charged side chain, such as arginine’s guanidinium or lysine’s ammonium group. An attractive ion pair, reinforced by hydrogen bonding, stabilizes the helical arrangement.
  • B: The phosphate group approaches another negatively charged group, such as a glutamate carboxylate. Repulsion destabilizes that arrangement.

Residues separated by three or four positions can approach one another on an α-helix, making their positions in the sequence important.

For such an arrangement, draw an attractive connection from a phosphate oxygen to the nearby cationic side chain in A, and indicate repulsion between the phosphate and nearby anionic group in B. Before phosphorylation, corresponding contacts involving serine’s hydroxyl would be hydrogen bonds rather than phosphate salt bridges.

These are conditional drawing instructions. The missing A and B sequences prevent assigning particular residue numbers or establishing that these particular side chains are present. Interactions with charged termini or the helix dipole could also contribute; the reported conformational changes alone do not uniquely identify the contacts.

7.4 — Folding with one non-polar and two polar residues

Use

\[ \Delta G_{\mathrm{fold}}=G_{\mathrm{folded}}-G_{\mathrm{unfolded}}. \]

For the unfolded segment, all three residues interact with water:

\[ G_{\mathrm{unfolded}} =8+2(-16) =-24\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}. \]

For the folded segment, they interact with the rest of the protein:

\[ G_{\mathrm{folded}} =-4+2(-14) =-32\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}. \]

Therefore,

\[ \boxed{\Delta G_{\mathrm{fold}} =-32-(-24) =-8\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}}. \]

Equivalently, burying the non-polar residue contributes \(-12\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\), whereas burying each polar residue costs \(+2\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}\).

7.5 — Folding with three polar residues

Each polar residue changes its interaction free energy by

\[ -14-(-16)=+2\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}. \]

Consequently,

\[ \boxed{\Delta G_{\mathrm{fold}}=3(+2)=+6\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}}. \]

Folding is unfavorable under the simplified interaction-energy model supplied in the question.

7.6 — Minimal molecular mass of β-lactamase

The smallest possible enzyme molecule contains one labelled active-site serine. Using the stated serine mass of \(105\ \mathrm{Da}\),

\[ \frac{105\ \mathrm{Da}}{M_{\min}} =\frac{0.35}{100}=0.0035. \]

Thus

\[ \boxed{M_{\min} =\frac{105}{0.0035} =3.0\times10^{4}\ \mathrm{Da}}. \]

If there were \(n\) labelled serines per enzyme molecule, the inferred mass would be \(n\) times this value. Hence one labelled serine gives the minimum.

7.7 — Approximate number of residues

The standard approximate mean mass of an amino-acid residue in a protein is \(110\ \mathrm{Da}\). Therefore,

\[ N\approx\frac{30\,000\ \mathrm{Da}} {110\ \mathrm{Da\,residue^{-1}}} \approx273\ \text{residues}. \]

The nearest option is (c), 275.

7.8 — Sequences of P1–P4

The sequence follows from four cleavage and labelling observations.

  1. Trypsin identifies the C-terminal residue.
    Trypsin cleaves peptide bonds on the C-terminal side of lysine or arginine. P1 contains lysine and no arginine, so its C-terminal residue is Lys.

  2. Edman degradation identifies the first residue.
    Release of the phenylalanine derivative establishes that P1 begins with Phe. P2 is the remaining pentapeptide.

  3. N-terminal labelling of P2 identifies the second residue of P1.
    The dinitrophenyl-Glu product establishes that P2 begins with Glu. Thus P1 has the partial sequence \[ \mathrm{Phe-Glu-\ ?-\ ?-\ ?-Lys}. \]

  4. Cyanogen bromide locates methionine.
    Cyanogen bromide, BrC#N, cleaves on the C-terminal side of methionine. A hexapeptide yielding fragments of lengths four and two would have Met at position 4 or position 2. Position 2 is already Glu, so Met must occupy position 4.

P3 is the four-residue N-terminal fragment and contains the active-site Ser. Its only remaining position is position 3. Leu consequently occupies position 5.

Hence

\[ \boxed{\mathrm{P1=Phe-Glu-Ser-Met-Leu-Lys}}. \]

Cyanogen-bromide cleavage changes the methionine at the end of the N-terminal fragment into a homoserine derivative. Taking the open-chain homoserine form indicated by the table gives

\[ \boxed{ \begin{aligned} \mathrm{P2}&=\mathrm{Glu-Ser-Met-Leu-Lys},\\ \mathrm{P3}&=\mathrm{Phe-Glu-Ser-Hms},\\ \mathrm{P4}&=\mathrm{Leu-Lys}. \end{aligned}} \]

The glutamate side chain accounts for P3’s acidic character.

The following SMILES show neutral peptide forms, with natural L stereochemistry and ordinary α-peptide linkages:

  • P1 — L-phenylalanyl-L-glutamyl-L-seryl-L-methionyl-L-leucyl-L-lysine:
    N[C@@H](Cc1ccccc1)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCSC)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)O

  • P2 — L-glutamyl-L-seryl-L-methionyl-L-leucyl-L-lysine:
    N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCSC)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)O

  • P3 — L-phenylalanyl-L-glutamyl-L-seryl-L-homoserine:
    N[C@@H](Cc1ccccc1)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCO)C(=O)O

  • P4 — L-leucyl-L-lysine:
    N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)O

For conversion through to open-chain homoserine, the balanced overall cleavage, written using these neutral peptide forms, is

\[ \ce{P1 + BrCN + 2H2O -> P3 + P4 + CH3SCN + HBr}. \]

The additional species are water, O; methyl thiocyanate, CSC#N; and hydrogen bromide, [H]Br. The initially formed homoserine lactone accounts for the distinction discussed next.

7.9 — Molecular mass of P3

P3 contains Phe, Glu, Ser and Hms. L-Homoserine is N[C@@H](CCO)C(=O)O.

A linear tetrapeptide has three peptide bonds, so its mass equals the sum of the four free amino-acid masses minus three water molecules:

\[ \begin{aligned} M(\mathrm{P3}) &=165+147+105+119-3(18)\\ &=\boxed{482\ \mathrm{Da}}. \end{aligned} \]

Methionine’s mass must not be used for the terminal residue after cyanogen-bromide cleavage.

Chemically, cyanogen-bromide cleavage initially produces a terminal homoserine γ-lactone, which can hydrolyse to homoserine. The corresponding P3 lactone is L-phenylalanyl-L-glutamyl-L-seryl-L-homoserine γ-lactone:

N[C@@H](Cc1ccccc1)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCO1)C1=O

Its hydrolysis is

\[ \ce{P3(lactone) + H2O -> P3(homoserine)}. \]

Therefore the lactone would have mass \(482-18=464\ \mathrm{Da}\). The supplied homoserine table entry supports 482 Da as the intended answer.

7.10 — Effective concentration of the nucleophile

For the reaction with free serine, the pseudo-first-order rate constant is

\[ k_{\mathrm{obs}}=k_2[\text{serine}]. \]

At \(1\ \mathrm{mol\,L^{-1}}\),

\[ k_2=\frac{0.5\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}}{1\ \mathrm{mol\,L^{-1}}} =0.5\ \mathrm{L\,mol^{-1}\,s^{-1}}. \]

Define the effective concentration by equating the enzymatic rate constant to \(k_2c_{\mathrm{eff}}\):

\[ c_{\mathrm{eff}} =\frac{350\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}} {0.5\ \mathrm{L\,mol^{-1}\,s^{-1}}} =\boxed{7\times10^2\ \mathrm{mol\,L^{-1}}}. \]

This is a kinetic effective molarity: the solution concentration that would give the same rate under this comparison. It is not a literal bulk concentration inside the enzyme.

7.11 — Most effective inhibitor

For reversible binding,

\[ \ce{E + I <=> EI}, \qquad K_D=\frac{[\mathrm E][\mathrm I]}{[\mathrm{EI}]}. \]

A smaller \(K_D\) means stronger binding. At the same free inhibitor concentration, it also means a greater fraction of enzyme is inhibitor-bound:

\[ f_{\mathrm{bound}}=\frac{[\mathrm I]}{K_D+[\mathrm I]}. \]

Since

\[ 5.0\times10^{-9}<1.0\times10^{-6}<2.0\times10^{-3}, \]

inhibitor C is the most effective under comparable concentration conditions. Its molecular structure is not supplied, so no molecular name or SMILES can be inferred from its \(K_D\).

7.12 — Electrophile formation and enzyme inactivation

The missing inhibitor drawing is essential for assigning the structures of A and B. The information supplied establishes the following mechanistic framework:

  1. Serine attacks the β-lactam carbonyl. Draw a curved arrow from the serine oxygen lone pair to the carbonyl carbon, and another from the carbonyl π bond to oxygen.

  2. The β-lactam ring opens. Collapse of the tetrahedral intermediate breaks the lactam’s acyl carbon–nitrogen bond, with the necessary proton transfers. The initial product is a serine acyl-enzyme ester. Its ester linkage can be represented generically as [*]C(=O)O[*], with the wildcards representing the inhibitor-derived and enzyme-derived portions.

  3. Bromide is eliminated. Bromide ion is [Br-]. Its departure generates electrophile A. The omitted inhibitor connectivity determines which bond breaks, which new bond or π system forms, and where the electrophilic center lies.

  4. Residue X traps A. Draw an arrow from the nucleophilic lone pair on X to the electrophilic atom of A, with the corresponding electron redistribution. The resulting covalent adduct is B, which inactivates the enzyme.

The prose does not identify the bromine-bearing carbon, the inhibitor substituents, or the chemical identity of X. Consequently, a unique chemical name, complete SMILES, detailed product drawing, or atom-balanced overall equation for A and B cannot be supplied without inventing missing structural information.

The solution was checked against the official solution.