IChO 1995 · Theory problem 4

Bacterial poly(3-hydroxyalkanoic acids)

Poly[(R)-3-hydroxyalkanoic acids], PHAs, are synthesized by a variety of bacteria and function as intracellular carbon and energy storage materials. These polymers are also biodegradable in environments, such as soil, anaerobic sewage and sea water. The inherent biologically mediated environmental degradability, useful physical properties, slow hydrolytic degradation and other favourable properties make bacterial polyesters exciting materials for both disposable biodegradable plastics (good for a clean environment) and special medical products.

4.1 PHB, Poly(3-hydroxybutanoic acid), produced by bacteria contains only (R)-HB repeating units, while that synthesized by polymer chemists may contain only (R)-HB or only (S)-HB or both (R)-and (S)-HB in an alternating manner or both but in random distributions. Sketch chain structures of the atactic PHB, syndiotactic PHB and isotactic PHBs and denote each chiral carbon with (R) or (S). Five monomeric units are enough for each chain.

{Note: In "PHB", P means "poly" or "polymer of, HB represents the monomeric units contained in poly(3-hydroxybutanoic acid) molecules.)

4.2 Suggest two types of monomers that could be used for polymer chemists to synthesize a PHB, regardless of the stereochemistry of the products.

4.3 Poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutanoic acid] can be synthesized by feeding the bacteria (such as Alcaligenes Eutrophus) with sodium acetate in a nitrogen-free media. It is believed that the key steps for the conversion of acetate to PHB are the activation of acetate molecules by coenzyme A and the subsequent formation of the coenzyme A activated acetoacetate, which is then reduced by a reductase to form coenzyme A activated monomer 3-hydroxybutyrate. Polymerization of the monomer is achieved by a polymerase which would build the polymer molecules with unique stereospecificity. Sketch these steps with structural formulae. For coenzyme A the conventional abbreviation, -S-CoA (-CoA is as good), should be used in the sketch.

4.4 If sodium propanoate is used (as the sole carbon source) in the feeding media instead of sodium acetate, the principal product will be a copolymer of 3-hydroxybutanoic acid and 3-hydroxypentanoic acid with the following generalized structure:

Figure 1

Rationalize the result.

(Note: Two different monomers are needed for the formation of the copolymer. The letters m and n in the structural formula are numbers of the units and have nothing to do with the answer, in other words, you may leave them out in your answer.)

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

In the abbreviated CoA SMILES below, * represents the unchanged CoA residue beyond sulfur, consistent with the abbreviation requested in the problem.

  • 4.1: Along the PHB backbone, representative five-unit configurations are:
  • Atactic: \(R,R,S,S,R\), illustrating an irregular sequence.
  • Syndiotactic: \(R,S,R,S,R\).
  • Isotactic: \(R,R,R,R,R\) or \(S,S,S,S,S\).

Explicit five-unit structures are given below.

  • 4.2: 3-Hydroxybutanoic acid, CC(O)CC(=O)O, by polycondensation; and β-butyrolactone (4-methyloxetan-2-one), CC1CC(=O)O1, by ring-opening polymerization.

  • 4.3: Activation gives acetyl-CoA, CC(=O)S*. Condensation of two molecules gives acetoacetyl-CoA, CC(=O)CC(=O)S*; stereoselective reduction gives (R)-3-hydroxybutanoyl-CoA, C[C@@H](O)CC(=O)S*, which polymerizes to all-\((R)\) PHB.

  • 4.4: Propanoate supplies propionyl-CoA, CCC(=O)S*, and, through metabolism, acetyl-CoA. Combining two acetyl units gives the four-carbon monomer; combining acetyl and propionyl units gives (R)-3-hydroxypentanoyl-CoA, CC[C@@H](O)CC(=O)S*. Incorporation of both activated hydroxyacids produces the copolymer.

Solution

4.1 — Tacticity and five-unit structures

The PHB backbone consists of repetitions of

\[ \ce{-O-CH(CH3)-CH2-C(=O)-}. \]

The carbon bearing the methyl group is the stereogenic carbon. Its substituent priorities are oxygen \(>\) the chain through \(\ce{CH2C(=O)}\) \(>\) methyl \(>\) hydrogen.

For an explicit sketch, draw five consecutive copies of this backbone and label their stereogenic carbons, from left to right, with the configurations below. The following SMILES represent five-unit chains with hydroxyl and carboxylic acid end groups; these end groups simply make each example a complete molecule.

  • Atactic PHB, illustrative sequence \(R,R,S,S,R\):
    O[C@H](C)CC(=O)O[C@H](C)CC(=O)O[C@@H](C)CC(=O)O[C@@H](C)CC(=O)O[C@H](C)CC(=O)O

  • Syndiotactic PHB, sequence \(R,S,R,S,R\):
    O[C@H](C)CC(=O)O[C@@H](C)CC(=O)O[C@H](C)CC(=O)O[C@@H](C)CC(=O)O[C@H](C)CC(=O)O

  • Isotactic poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutanoic acid], sequence \(R,R,R,R,R\):
    O[C@H](C)CC(=O)O[C@H](C)CC(=O)O[C@H](C)CC(=O)O[C@H](C)CC(=O)O[C@H](C)CC(=O)O

  • Isotactic poly[(S)-3-hydroxybutanoic acid], sequence \(S,S,S,S,S\):
    O[C@@H](C)CC(=O)O[C@@H](C)CC(=O)O[C@@H](C)CC(=O)O[C@@H](C)CC(=O)O[C@@H](C)CC(=O)O

Atactic means that the configurations are distributed randomly along the polymer; the displayed five-unit sequence is one example. Syndiotactic means alternating configurations, whereas isotactic means identical configurations throughout. These descriptions specify configuration independently of the chain’s conformation.

4.2 — Two suitable monomer types

Hydroxyacid route.
3-Hydroxybutanoic acid, CC(O)CC(=O)O, contains both the alcohol and carboxylic acid groups needed for polyester formation:

\[ \ce{HO-CH(CH3)-CH2-C(=O)OH}. \]

Define a hydroxyl/carboxyl-ended PHB chain containing \(n\) units as

\[ P_n=\ce{H[-O-CH(CH3)-CH2-C(=O)-]_{n}OH}. \]

Its polycondensation balance is

\[ n\,\ce{HO-CH(CH3)-CH2-C(=O)OH} \longrightarrow P_n+(n-1)\,\ce{H2O}. \]

There are \(n-1\) ester links between \(n\) monomers, so \(n-1\) molecules of water, O, are eliminated.

Lactone route.
β-Butyrolactone, or 4-methyloxetan-2-one, CC1CC(=O)O1, is the corresponding cyclic ester. Its four-membered ring follows the order

\[ \ce{O-C(=O)-CH2-CH(CH3)} \]

with a closing bond from the last carbon back to oxygen. Opening this ring supplies exactly the PHB backbone connectivity.

For the same hydroxyl/carboxyl end groups, the overall balance, including end-group work-up, is

\[ n\,\underbrace{\ce{C4H6O2}}_{\text{β-butyrolactone}} +\ce{H2O} \xrightarrow{\text{ring-opening polymerization}} P_n. \]

The water accounts for the chosen terminal groups. The stereochemistry of either monomer is unrestricted in this part.

4.3 — Biosynthesis from acetate

Sodium acetate, CC(=O)[O-].[Na+], supplies acetate ion, CC(=O)[O-]; sodium ion, [Na+], is a spectator.

Coenzyme A in its thiol form is written \(\ce{HS-CoA}\), with abbreviated SMILES S*. Below, activation is expressed as its balanced condensation component, driven by metabolic energy coupling. Reduction is expressed as a balanced half-reaction: protons, [H+], and electrons represent the reducing equivalents supplied by cellular cofactors.

Activation to acetyl-CoA

\[ \ce{CH3COO^- + H+ + HS-CoA -> CH3C(=O)S-CoA + H2O}. \]

The product is acetyl-CoA, CC(=O)S*, a thioester that activates the acetate-derived acyl group.

Condensation to acetoacetyl-CoA

\[ \ce{2 CH3C(=O)S-CoA -> CH3C(=O)CH2C(=O)S-CoA + HS-CoA}. \]

The product is acetoacetyl-CoA (3-oxobutanoyl-CoA), CC(=O)CC(=O)S*.

This is a Claisen-type condensation. The carbon nucleophile formed at the methyl group of one acetyl-CoA attacks the thioester carbonyl of another. Acyl substitution forms the carbon–carbon bond and releases coenzyme A. Two two-carbon precursors thereby produce the required four-carbon skeleton.

Stereoselective reduction

\[ \ce{CH3C(=O)CH2C(=O)S-CoA + 2H+ + 2e- -> CH3CH(OH)CH2C(=O)S-CoA}. \]

The reductase produces specifically (R)-3-hydroxybutanoyl-CoA, C[C@@H](O)CC(=O)S*, denoted \(B_4\). Reduction of the ketone creates the stereogenic carbon; the thioester remains available for polymerization.

Polymerization

The hydroxy group and activated carboxyl group of different monomers form ester links, releasing coenzyme A. For the hydroxyl/carboxyl-ended chain used above, the overall balance including hydrolytic termination is

\[ n\,B_4+\ce{H2O} \xrightarrow{\text{polymerase}} P_n^{(R)}+n\,\ce{HS-CoA}, \]

where

\[ P_n^{(R)} = \ce{H[-O-CH(CH3)-CH2-C(=O)-]_{n}OH} \]

has configuration \((R)\) at every stereogenic carbon.

The water accounts for hydrolysis of the final activated chain end. Ester formation occurs at the acyl carbon, so the \((R)\) configurations of the incorporated monomers are retained.

4.4 — Why propanoate gives both four- and five-carbon repeats

Sodium propanoate, CCC(=O)[O-].[Na+], supplies propanoate ion, CCC(=O)[O-]. Its activation gives propionyl-CoA, CCC(=O)S*:

\[ \ce{CH3CH2COO^- + H+ + HS-CoA -> CH3CH2C(=O)S-CoA + H2O}. \]

The carbon source is metabolized before polymer incorporation. Part of the propanoate-derived material supplies acetyl-CoA through oxidative metabolism. A balanced net oxidation expressing this carbon shortening is

\[ \ce{CH3CH2C(=O)S-CoA + 2H2O -> CH3C(=O)S-CoA + CO2 + 6H+ + 6e-}. \]

Here carbon dioxide is O=C=O. This equation gives the overall carbon and redox balance of a multistep conversion.

Consequently, the cells have both two-carbon acetyl-CoA and three-carbon propionyl-CoA available:

\[ \begin{aligned} 2+2&=4 &&\text{carbons for the HB precursor},\\ 2+3&=5 &&\text{carbons for the HV precursor}. \end{aligned} \]

The four-carbon route is the acetyl-CoA self-condensation and reduction already shown in 4.3.

For the five-carbon route, acetyl-CoA supplies the carbon nucleophile and propionyl-CoA supplies the acyl group:

\[ \ce{CH3C(=O)S-CoA + CH3CH2C(=O)S-CoA -> CH3CH2C(=O)CH2C(=O)S-CoA + HS-CoA}. \]

The product is 3-oxopentanoyl-CoA, CCC(=O)CC(=O)S*. Stereoselective reduction then gives

\[ \ce{CH3CH2C(=O)CH2C(=O)S-CoA + 2H+ + 2e- -> CH3CH2CH(OH)CH2C(=O)S-CoA}. \]

The product is (R)-3-hydroxypentanoyl-CoA, CC[C@@H](O)CC(=O)S*, denoted \(B_5\).

The two activated monomers correspond to:

Hydroxyacid SMILES Resulting polyester repeat
(R)-3-Hydroxybutanoic acid C[C@@H](O)CC(=O)O \(\ce{-O-CH(CH3)-CH2-C(=O)-}\)
(R)-3-Hydroxypentanoic acid CC[C@@H](O)CC(=O)O \(\ce{-O-CH(CH2CH3)-CH2-C(=O)-}\)

Their incorporation produces poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-(R)-3-hydroxyvalerate], commonly called PHBV. An illustrative HB–HV pair, represented as a hydroxyl/carboxyl-ended dimer, has SMILES:

O[C@H](C)CC(=O)O[C@H](CC)CC(=O)O

For a chain containing \(m\) HB units and \(n\) HV units, the corresponding overall polymerization balance is

\[ mB_4+nB_5+\ce{H2O} \xrightarrow{\text{polymerase}} P_{m,n}+(m+n)\,\ce{HS-CoA}. \]

Thus, one supplied carbon source can generate two distinct activated monomers through metabolism. The generalized formula identifies the two repeat-unit types; it does not determine their sequence or relative amounts.

The solution was checked against the official solution.