IChO 1988 · Theory problem 1

Flatlandia: the periodic system of a two-dimensional world

The periodic system of the elements in our three-dimensional world is based on the four electron quantum numbers \(n = 1, 2, 3,\ldots;\ l = 0, 1,\ldots,n - 1,\ m = 0,\pm 1,\pm 2,\ldots,\pm 1;\) and \(s = \pm 1/2\). In Flatlandia, a two-dimensional world, the periodic system is thus based on three electron quantum numbers: \(n = 1,2,3,\ldots;\ m_l = 0,\pm1,\pm2,\ldots,\pm(n-1);\) and \(s = \pm1/2\) where \(m_l\) plays the combined role of \(l\) and \(m_l\) of the three dimensional world. The following tasks relate to this two-dimensional world, where the chemical and physical experience obtained from our world is supposed to be still applicable.

1.1 Draw the first four periods of the Flatlandian periodic table of the elements. Number them according to their nuclear charge. Use the atomic numbers (\(Z\)) as symbols of the specific element. Write the electron configuration for each element.

1.2 Draw the hybrid orbitals of the elements with \(n = 2\). Which element is the basis for the “organic” chemistry in Flatlandia? Find the Flatlandian analogous for ethane, ethene and cyclohexane. What kind of aromatic ring compounds are possible?

1.3 Which rules in Flatlandia correspond to the octet and the 18-electron rules in the three dimensional world?

1.4 Predict graphically the trends in the first ionization energies of the Flatlandian elements with \(n = 2\). Show graphically how the electronegativities of the elements increase in the Flatlandian periodic table.

1.5 Draw the molecular orbital energy diagrams of the neutral homonuclear diatomic molecules of the elements with \(n = 2\). Which of these molecules are stable in Flatlandia?

1.6 Consider simple binary compounds of the elements (\(n = 2\)) with \(Z = 1\). Draw their Lewis structure, predict their geometries and propose analogues for them in the three-dimensional world.

1.7 Consider elements with \(n \leq 3\). Propose an analogue and write the chemical symbol from our world for each of these Flatlandian elements. On the basis of this chemical and physical analogue predict which two-dimensional elements are solid, liquid or gaseous at normal pressure and temperature.

Official English text of the problem.

Answers

  • 1.1 Using the usual Aufbau analogy, the first four periods contain 2, 6, 6 and 10 elements, respectively: \(Z=1\!-\!2,\ 3\!-\!8,\ 9\!-\!14,\ 15\!-\!24\). The complete table and configurations appear below.
  • 1.2 The available hybrids are \(sp\), linear at \(180^\circ\), and \(sp^2\), trigonal at \(120^\circ\). Element 5 is the carbon analogue. Writing \(\ce{X}\) for element 5 and \(\ce{H}\) for element 1, the ethane, ethene and cyclohexane analogues are \(\ce{X2H4}\), \(\ce{X2H2}\) and \(\ce{X6H6}\). Conventional benzene-type aromatic rings are unavailable in the ideal hybridization model; the limitation of this conclusion is discussed below.
  • 1.3 The corresponding rules are the six-electron rule and the ten-electron rule.
  • 1.4 First ionization energy generally increases from \(Z=3\) to \(8\), with expected dips at 5 and 7. Electronegativity increases broadly to the right and upwards; element 7 is the most electronegative of these main-group elements.
  • 1.5 The predicted bond orders for the dimers of \(Z=3,4,5,6,7,8\) are \(1,0,1,2,1,0\). Thus the elementary MO model predicts bound dimers for 3, 5, 6 and 7.
  • 1.6 The simplest hydrides are: element 3, \(\ce{EH}\), predominantly ionic; element 4, \(\ce{EH2}\), linear as an isolated molecule; element 5, \(\ce{EH3}\), trigonal planar; element 6, \(\ce{EH2}\), bent; element 7, \(\ce{EH}\), diatomic. Element 8 has no ordinary stable hydride.
  • 1.7 The proposed analogues, in order \(Z=1\) through \(14\), are H, He, Li, Be, C, O, F, Ne, Na, Mg, Si, S, Cl, Ar. Predicted solids are 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 11, 12; gases are 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14; none is predicted to be liquid.

Solution

The quantum numbers determine orbital capacities exactly. To construct a chemical periodic table, an additional analogy is necessary: I use the ordinary Aufbau ordering with \(|m_l|\) replacing \(l\), together with Pauli exclusion and Hund’s rule.

Notation for structures. Ordinary SMILES cannot encode a different periodic system. Accordingly, [*:5] below means a wildcard atom labelled as Flatlandian element 5, not ordinary boron. The number after the colon is a label under this convention. [H] denotes element 1. These SMILES describe connectivity and formal bond orders; the accompanying text specifies Flatlandian electron counts and geometry.

1.1 — Periodic table and electron configurations

For a given \(n\), the permitted orbital quantum numbers are

\[ m_l=-(n-1),\ldots,-1,0,1,\ldots,n-1. \]

There are \(2n-1\) spatial orbitals, each accommodating two electrons. Thus

\[ \boxed{N_n=2(2n-1)=4n-2.} \]

The first four shell capacities are consequently \(2,6,10,14\).

We can name the subshells by analogy:

Subshell Values of \(m_l\) Spatial orbitals Electron capacity
\(s\) \(0\) 1 2
\(p\) \(-1,+1\) 2 4
\(d\) \(-2,+2\) 2 4
\(f\) \(-3,+3\) 2 4

The analogue of the \(n+l\) ordering uses \(n+|m_l|\), with smaller \(n\) filled first when sums are equal. Through the fourth period, this gives

\[ 1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d<4p. \]

In particular, \(3d\) fills in the fourth period. Shell capacities therefore differ from period lengths.

The requested periodic-table sketch is:

Period \(s^1\) \(s^2\) \(d\)-block 1 \(d\)-block 2 \(d\)-block 3 \(d\)-block 4 \(p^1\) \(p^2\) \(p^3\) \(p^4\), closed shell
1 1 2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3 9 10 11 12 13 14
4 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Element 2 is placed with the other closed-shell elements despite having configuration \(1s^2\).

Define the closed cores

\[ [2]=1s^2,\qquad [8]=1s^22s^22p^4,\qquad [14]=1s^22s^22p^43s^23p^4. \]

The unrearranged Aufbau configurations are:

\(Z\) Electron configuration \(Z\) Electron configuration
1 \(1s^1\) 13 \([8]\,3s^23p^3\)
2 \(1s^2\) 14 \([8]\,3s^23p^4\)
3 \([2]\,2s^1\) 15 \([14]\,4s^1\)
4 \([2]\,2s^2\) 16 \([14]\,4s^2\)
5 \([2]\,2s^22p^1\) 17 \([14]\,3d^14s^2\)
6 \([2]\,2s^22p^2\) 18 \([14]\,3d^24s^2\)
7 \([2]\,2s^22p^3\) 19 \([14]\,3d^34s^2\)
8 \([2]\,2s^22p^4\) 20 \([14]\,3d^44s^2\)
9 \([8]\,3s^1\) 21 \([14]\,3d^44s^24p^1\)
10 \([8]\,3s^2\) 22 \([14]\,3d^44s^24p^2\)
11 \([8]\,3s^23p^1\) 23 \([14]\,3d^44s^24p^3\)
12 \([8]\,3s^23p^2\) 24 \([14]\,3d^44s^24p^4\)

There is a qualification concerning transition-metal exceptions. Transplanting the empirical preference for half-filled and filled \(d\) subshells suggests the alternative configurations

\[ Z=17:\ [14]\,3d^24s^1, \qquad Z=19:\ [14]\,3d^44s^1. \]

These are the possible analogues of chromium- and copper-type rearrangements. Whether they actually occur requires relative orbital and interaction energies, which are not supplied.

1.2 — Hybrid orbitals and organic analogues

The \(n=2\) shell contains one \(s\) orbital and two real \(p\) orbitals, which we may call \(p_x\) and \(p_y\). Both lie in Flatlandia’s plane.

Two hybridization patterns are available:

  1. \(sp\) hybridization

\[ h_\pm=\frac{s\pm p_x}{\sqrt2}. \]

Draw two large hybrid lobes pointing in opposite directions along a straight line, at \(180^\circ\). The unused \(p_y\) orbital has two opposite-sign lobes perpendicular to that line, but still within the plane. It can form a \(\pi\) bond.

  1. \(sp^2\) hybridization

\[ h_k= \frac{s}{\sqrt3} +\sqrt{\frac23} \left(\cos\theta_k\,p_x+\sin\theta_k\,p_y\right), \qquad \theta_k=0^\circ,120^\circ,240^\circ. \]

Draw three large hybrid lobes along three rays separated by \(120^\circ\), with a smaller back lobe opposite each large lobe. No unused \(p\) orbital remains.

Element 5 has three valence electrons. Promotion permits

\[ 2s^22p^1\longrightarrow 2s^12p_x^12p_y^1, \]

so it can form three covalent bonds and attain a six-electron valence shell. It occupies the role of carbon as a versatile, catenating framework element.

For this part, let \(\ce{X}\) denote element 5 and \(\ce{H}\) element 1.

Requested analogue Flatlandian formula and name Flatlandian connectivity SMILES Geometry
Ethane, CC \(\ce{X2H4}\), Flatlandian ethane analogue [*:5]([H])([H])[*:5]([H])[H] One single bond between two \(sp^2\) centres; each centre also bonds to two hydrogen atoms. The three bond directions at either centre are approximately \(120^\circ\).
Ethene, C=C \(\ce{X2H2}\), Flatlandian ethene analogue [H][*:5]=[*:5][H] Each centre is \(sp\)-hybridized. All four nuclei lie on a straight line. The double bond consists of one \(\sigma\) bond and one in-plane \(\pi\) bond.
Cyclohexane, C1CCCCC1 \(\ce{X6H6}\), Flatlandian cyclohexane analogue [*:5]1([H])[*:5]([H])[*:5]([H])[*:5]([H])[*:5]([H])[*:5]1[H] A planar regular hexagon with single ring bonds, approximately \(120^\circ\) internal angles, and one outward-pointing hydrogen at each vertex.

The cyclic analogue has twelve \(\sigma\) bonds: six around the ring and six to hydrogen. It is fully saturated. Three-dimensional chair and boat conformations are unavailable.

For ordinary benzene-type aromaticity, each ring atom needs orbitals for its \(\sigma\) framework plus a separate orbital supporting continuous cyclic \(\pi\) overlap. An \(sp^2\) centre in Flatlandia has used all three available valence orbitals. An \(sp\) centre retains a \(p\) orbital, but its ideal \(\sigma\)-bond directions are collinear and cannot close an unstrained ring.

Thus the elementary hybridization construction gives no conventional benzene-type aromatic organic rings. This argument does not prove that every conceivable bent-bond or \(\sigma\)-aromatic cluster is impossible.

1.3 — Analogues of the octet and 18-electron rules

For main-group bonding, the available valence orbitals are one \(s\) and two \(p\) orbitals:

\[ 2(1+2)=6\text{ electrons}. \]

Therefore,

\[ \boxed{\text{octet rule}\ \longrightarrow\ \text{six-electron rule}.} \]

The first shell retains its two-electron closure.

For transition-metal bonding, the corresponding \(s\), \(p\) and \(d\) set contains

\[ 1+2+2=5 \]

spatial orbitals. Hence

\[ 2(1+2+2)=10\text{ electrons}, \]

and

\[ \boxed{\text{18-electron rule}\ \longrightarrow\ \text{ten-electron rule}.} \]

As in our world, these are useful closed-shell counting rules, not guarantees that every stable compound satisfies them.

1.4 — Ionization energies and electronegativities

Across the second period, increasing nuclear charge generally binds the valence electrons more strongly. Two familiar electronic effects interrupt that trend.

Element Valence configuration Expected feature of first ionization energy
3 \(2s^1\) Low: removal gives the closed first shell.
4 \(2s^2\) Higher: the \(2s\) subshell is filled.
5 \(2s^22p^1\) A dip relative to 4: the electron removed is in the less penetrating \(2p\) subshell.
6 \(2s^22p^2\) Rises: the two \(p\) orbitals are singly occupied with parallel spins.
7 \(2s^22p^3\) An expected dip relative to 6: one \(p\) orbital now contains a pair; ionization relieves pairing repulsion and leaves the half-filled \(p\) subshell.
8 \(2s^22p^4\) Highest in the period: increased nuclear attraction and a complete valence shell.

For the requested graph, place \(Z=3,4,5,6,7,8\) along the horizontal axis and first ionization energy on the vertical axis. Draw an overall rising sequence with local downward steps at 5 and 7:

\[ I_1(3)\nearrow I_1(4)\searrow I_1(5) \nearrow I_1(6)\searrow I_1(7)\nearrow I_1(8). \]

This specifies a qualitative curve; the problem supplies no numerical ionization energies.

For electronegativity, draw arrows on the periodic table:

\[ \boxed{\text{increasing across a main-group period: }\longrightarrow} \]

\[ \boxed{\text{increasing up a group: }\uparrow} \]

Thus the broad direction of increase is towards the upper right, excluding the closed-shell column in the usual elementary treatment. Element 7, one electron short of a sextet, occupies the fluorine-like position.

1.5 — Molecular orbital diagrams and stable dimers

Choose the internuclear axis as \(x\).

  • The two \(2s\) orbitals produce \(\sigma_s\) and \(\sigma_s^*\).
  • The two \(2p_x\) orbitals produce \(\sigma_p\) and \(\sigma_p^*\).
  • The two \(2p_y\) orbitals produce \(\pi_p\) and \(\pi_p^*\).

There is only one bonding \(\pi\) orbital and one antibonding \(\pi\) orbital. The twofold \(\pi\) degeneracy familiar in three dimensions is absent.

A conventional ordering with relatively weak \(s\)-\(p\) mixing is

\[ \sigma_s<\sigma_s^*<\sigma_p<\pi_p<\pi_p^*<\sigma_p^*. \]

To sketch each diagram, draw these six horizontal levels in increasing energy. Fill each occupied level with a paired up and down arrow according to the following table. The occupied core levels \(\sigma_{1s}^2\sigma_{1s}^{*2}\) are common to every molecule and cancel in the bond-order calculation.

Each atom contributes \(Z-2\) valence electrons, so the dimer contains \(2(Z-2)\).

\[ \text{Bond order}=\frac{N_{\mathrm{bonding}}-N_{\mathrm{antibonding}}}{2}. \]

Dimer Valence electrons Valence MO configuration Bond order Elementary prediction
Element-3 dimer 2 \(\sigma_s^2\) 1 Bound
Element-4 dimer 4 \(\sigma_s^2(\sigma_s^*)^2\) 0 No net covalent bond
Element-5 dimer 6 \(\sigma_s^2(\sigma_s^*)^2\sigma_p^2\) 1 Bound
Element-6 dimer 8 \(\sigma_s^2(\sigma_s^*)^2\sigma_p^2\pi_p^2\) 2 Bound
Element-7 dimer 10 \(\sigma_s^2(\sigma_s^*)^2\sigma_p^2\pi_p^2(\pi_p^*)^2\) 1 Bound
Element-8 dimer 12 \(\sigma_s^2(\sigma_s^*)^2\sigma_p^2\pi_p^2(\pi_p^*)^2(\sigma_p^*)^2\) 0 No net covalent bond

Corresponding connectivity representations are:

Species or predicted dissociation limit SMILES
Element-3 dimer [*:3][*:3]
Two separated element-4 atoms [*:4].[*:4]
Element-5 dimer [*:5][*:5]
Element-6 dimer [*:6]=[*:6]
Element-7 dimer [*:7][*:7]
Two separated element-8 atoms [*:8].[*:8]

Stronger \(s\)-\(p\) mixing can reverse the order of the two bonding \(p\)-derived levels:

\[ \sigma_s<\sigma_s^*<\pi_p<\sigma_p<\pi_p^*<\sigma_p^*. \]

For this alternative, put the last pair of the element-5 dimer into \(\pi_p\) instead of \(\sigma_p\). All the listed bond orders and stability conclusions remain unchanged.

All occupied levels in these elementary diagrams contain paired electrons. In particular, the element-6 dimer is predicted to be diamagnetic.

Here “unbound” means no net covalent stabilization in this elementary MO model; a zero formal bond order does not by itself exclude weak interactions or correlation-induced binding.

1.6 — Hydrides, Lewis structures and geometries

In the following table, \(\ce{E}\) denotes the element specified by the \(Z\) column. Every ordinary covalent bond contains two electrons, and hydrogen requires a duet.

\(Z\) Flatlandian hydride and SMILES Lewis structure and geometry Proposed three-dimensional analogue
3 Element-3 hydride, \(\ce{EH}\), [*+:3].[H-] Predominantly an element-3 cation and a hydride anion. Put one electron pair on the hydride ion. The condensed material is ionic; an isolated two-nucleus species is linear. Lithium hydride, \(\ce{LiH}\), [Li+].[H-]
4 Element-4 dihydride, \(\ce{EH2}\), [H][*:4][H] Two single bonds, no lone pair on the central atom. The isolated molecule is linear, \(180^\circ\), using \(sp\) hybrids. It has only four electrons around the central atom and is electron deficient. Beryllium hydride, \(\ce{BeH2}\), [H][Be][H]
5 Element-5 trihydride, \(\ce{EH3}\), [*:5]([H])([H])[H] Three single bonds and no lone pair on the central atom. Trigonal planar, approximately \(120^\circ\), with a complete sextet. Methane, \(\ce{CH4}\), C
6 Element-6 dihydride, \(\ce{EH2}\), [H][*:6][H] Two single bonds and one lone pair on the central atom. Three electron-pair domains give a bent molecule: idealized angle \(120^\circ\), reduced by stronger lone-pair repulsion. Water, \(\ce{H2O}\), O
7 Element-7 hydride, \(\ce{EH}\), [H][*:7] One single bond and two lone pairs on element 7. A complete sextet surrounds it. The molecule is diatomic and therefore linear. Hydrogen fluoride, \(\ce{HF}\), [H]F
8 No ordinary stable simple hydride The valence shell is already closed. Neon has no ordinary stable hydride.

The central-atom electron counts in the three sextet-satisfying covalent hydrides are

\[ \begin{aligned} Z=5:&\quad 3\text{ bond pairs}=6\text{ electrons},\\ Z=6:&\quad 2\text{ bond pairs}+1\text{ lone pair}=6\text{ electrons},\\ Z=7:&\quad 1\text{ bond pair}+2\text{ lone pairs}=6\text{ electrons}. \end{aligned} \]

The element-4 hydride is the electron-deficient exception. As with ordinary beryllium hydride, bridging or polymerization could increase coordination in the condensed phase; the linear prediction concerns its isolated monomer.

These analogies concern chemical role and bonding tendency. They do not imply identical coordination numbers or lone-pair counts in the two worlds.

1.7 — Analogous elements and physical states

For the first three periods, choose analogues using the following criteria:

  • The first closed shell and the \(s\)-block positions correspond directly.
  • Element 5 occupies the half-filled-valence-shell, framework-forming role of carbon.
  • Elements 6 and 7 need two and one additional electrons, respectively, to complete their valence shells, giving oxygen-like and fluorine-like roles.
  • The next period repeats those relationships.
Flatlandian \(Z\) Proposed analogue Reason for the analogy Predicted state
1 \(\ce{H}\) One electron; duet-forming first-shell chemistry Gas
2 \(\ce{He}\) Closed first shell Gas
3 \(\ce{Li}\) Second-period \(s^1\) metal Solid
4 \(\ce{Be}\) Second-period \(s^2\) metal Solid
5 \(\ce{C}\) Catenating covalent framework element Solid
6 \(\ce{O}\) Two electrons short of a closed shell; divalent covalent chemistry Gas
7 \(\ce{F}\) One electron short of a closed shell; halogen-like chemistry Gas
8 \(\ce{Ne}\) Closed second valence shell Gas
9 \(\ce{Na}\) Third-period \(s^1\) metal Solid
10 \(\ce{Mg}\) Third-period \(s^2\) metal Solid
11 \(\ce{Si}\) Heavier homologue of the framework-forming element 5 Solid
12 \(\ce{S}\) Heavier, divalent homologue of element 6 Solid
13 \(\ce{Cl}\) Heavier halogen-like homologue of element 7 Gas
14 \(\ce{Ar}\) Closed third-period valence shell Gas

Thus

\[ \boxed{\text{Solids: }3,4,5,9,10,11,12} \]

\[ \boxed{\text{Gases: }1,2,6,7,8,13,14} \]

\[ \boxed{\text{Liquids: none among these elements}.} \]

These phase assignments are the requested predictions from chemical analogy, rather than deductions from the quantum-number count alone.

The solution was checked against the official solution.