IMO 2015 · Problem 2

Determine all triples \((a,b,c)\) of positive integers such that each of the numbers \[ ab-c,\qquad bc-a,\qquad ca-b \] is a power of 2.

(A power of 2 is an integer of the form \(2^n\), where \(n\) is a non-negative integer.)

Official text of the problem. Official problem paper (PDF)

Answer

All permutations of \[ \boxed{(2,2,2),\quad (2,2,3),\quad (2,6,11),\quad (3,5,7)}. \]

Solution

The conditions are symmetric in \(a,b,c\), so we may relabel the variables in each case. First, none can equal \(1\): if \(a=1\), positivity of \(ab-c\) and \(ca-b\) would require both \(b>c\) and \(c>b\). Hence \[ a,b,c\ge2. \]

For a positive integer \(n\), let \(v_2(n)\) denote the exponent of \(2\) in its prime factorization. We use the elementary fact that if two integers have different \(v_2\), their sum or nonzero difference has the smaller valuation. This follows by factoring out the smaller power of \(2\).

Case 1: All three variables are even.

Relabel so that \[ v_2(a)=\alpha\le v_2(b)=\beta\le v_2(c)=\gamma. \] Since \(\beta+\gamma>\alpha\) and \(\alpha+\gamma>\beta\), we have \[ v_2(bc-a)=\alpha,\qquad v_2(ac-b)=\beta. \] These expressions are powers of \(2\), so \[ bc-a=2^\alpha\le a,\qquad ac-b=2^\beta\le b. \] Thus \(bc\le2a\) and \(ac\le2b\). Multiplication gives \(c^2\le4\), whence \(c=2\).

Now \(\alpha=\beta=\gamma=1\), and the preceding equalities become \[ 2b-a=2,\qquad 2a-b=2. \] Therefore \(a=b=c=2\).

Case 2: Exactly two variables are odd.

All three expressions \(ab-c,bc-a,ca-b\) are odd. Consequently they must all equal \(1\). Subtracting pairs of these equalities gives \[ (a+1)(b-c)=0,\qquad (b+1)(a-c)=0. \] Hence \(a=b=c\), contradicting the parity pattern. There are no solutions in this case.

Case 3: Exactly one variable is odd.

Let \(c\) be odd and let \(a\le b\) be even. Since \(ab-c\) is an odd power of \(2\), \[ ab-c=1,\qquad c=ab-1. \]

If \(a=b\), then \[ ac-b=a(a^2-2) \] is a power of \(2\). Thus its positive factor \(a^2-2\) is also a power of \(2\). But \(a^2-2\equiv2\pmod4\), so \(a^2-2=2\). This yields \[ (a,b,c)=(2,2,3). \]

Now suppose \(a<b\). Write \[ ac-b=2^m,\qquad bc-a=2^n. \] Their difference is \((b-a)(c+1)>0\), so \(m<n\).

We claim that \(v_2(a)=v_2(b)\). Otherwise, because \(c\) is odd, both \(ac-b\) and \(bc-a\) would have valuation \[ \min\{v_2(a),v_2(b)\}, \] forcing \(m=n\), a contradiction. Set \[ v_2(a)=v_2(b)=k\ge1. \] Since \(c=ab-1\), \[ c^2-1=ab(ab-2). \] Here \(v_2(ab)=2k\), while \(ab-2\equiv2\pmod4\). Therefore \[ v_2(c^2-1)=2k+1. \] On the other hand, the identity \[ a(c^2-1)=c(ac-b)+(bc-a)=c2^m+2^n \] has valuation \(m\) on the right, since \(c\) is odd and \(m<n\). Comparing valuations yields \[ m=3k+1. \]

Put \(d=2^k\), \(a=du\), \(b=dv\), where \(u<v\) are positive odd integers. From \[ ac-b=b(a^2-1)-a=2^{3k+1}=2d^3 \] we obtain \[ v(d^2u^2-1)=u+2d^2. \] Since \(v\ge u\), this implies \[ d^2(u^3-2)\le2u. \] If \(u\ge3\), then \(u^3-2>u\) and \(d^2\ge4\), contradicting this inequality. Thus \(u=1\), and \[ v=\frac{1+2d^2}{d^2-1} =2+\frac{3}{d^2-1}. \] The last fraction is a positive integer, and \(d^2-1\ge3\). Hence \(d^2-1=3\), giving \(d=2\) and \(v=3\). Therefore \[ (a,b,c)=(2,6,11). \]

Case 4: All three variables are odd.

Now \(a,b,c\ge3\). No two can be equal: if, for example, \(a=b\), then \[ ac-b=a(c-1) \] would be a power of \(2\) divisible by the odd integer \(a>1\).

Relabel so that \(a<b<c\), and write \[ ab-c=2^r,\qquad ac-b=2^s,\qquad bc-a=2^t. \] Taking differences shows that \(r<s<t\).

Using \[ a(c^2-1)=c2^s+2^t \] and the oddness of \(a,c\), we obtain \[ v_2(c^2-1)=s. \] Of the consecutive even integers \(c-1,c+1\), exactly one has valuation \(1\). The largest power of \(2\) dividing the other is at most \(c+1\). Consequently, \[ 2^s\le2(c+1). \] But \(b\le c\), so \[ (a-1)c\le ac-b=2^s\le2(c+1), \] which gives \[ (a-3)c\le2. \] Since \(a\ge3\) is odd and \(c\ge3\), necessarily \(a=3\).

Next, the identity \[ b(a^2-1)=a2^r+2^s \] and \(r<s\) imply \[ r=v_2(a^2-1)=v_2(8)=3. \] Thus \[ c=3b-8. \] It follows that \[ ac-b=8(b-3),\qquad bc-a=(b-3)(3b+1). \] These are powers of \(2\), so both \(b-3\) and \(3b+1\) are powers of \(2\). Write \[ b-3=2^h,\qquad h\ge1. \] Then \[ 3b+1=3\cdot2^h+10. \] If \(h\ge2\), this number is congruent to \(2\pmod4\) and exceeds \(2\), so it cannot be a power of \(2\). Hence \(h=1\), yielding \[ (a,b,c)=(3,5,7). \]

Finally, direct substitution verifies every listed triple: \[ \begin{array}{c|ccc} (a,b,c)&ab-c&bc-a&ca-b\\ \hline (2,2,2)&2&2&2\\ (2,2,3)&1&4&4\\ (2,6,11)&1&64&16\\ (3,5,7)&8&32&16 \end{array} \] Symmetry verifies all their permutations, completing the classification.

The solution was checked against the official IMO shortlist solutions.